Psychedelic: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 20:36, 24 April 2025

Psychedelics (also known as serotonergic hallucinogens) are a class of psychoactive substances that produce an altered state of consciousness marked by unusual changes in perception, mood, and cognitive processes.^[1]

While the precise mechanism of action is not known, psychedelic substances are thought to produce their effects by binding to serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) receptors in the central nervous system, particularly the 5-HT_2a subtype. Serotonin plays a number of critical roles throughout the human body and is a key neurotransmitter involved in the functioning and regulation of sensory perception, behavior, mood, cognition and memory.^[2]

Human usage of psychedelics predates written history, and there is growing evidence that they were employed by early cultures in a variety of sociocultural and ritual contexts.^[1] In modern times, psychedelic substances are used for a number of purposes that span from the traditional shamanic forms (such as the use of ayahuasca in the Amazon jungle, or peyote among Native Americans) to more modern forms of New Age spiritual, transpersonal, or religious practices.

Psychedelics, particularly those in the traditional or herbal forms, are sometimes referred to as entheogens (i.e. "generating the divine within")^[3] by those who use them for these purposes, although they are also used in modern recreational settings.

Subjective effects can vary significantly depending on the subclass, but generally include some form of open and closed-eye visuals, time distortion, enhanced introspection, conceptual thinking, euphoria, and ego loss. The so-called classical psychedelics, which consist of LSD, psilocybin mushrooms, mescaline, and DMT (ayahuasca) are considered to produce the archetypal psychedelic effects and also have the most established safety profiles.

Psychedelics can be divided into three major sub-classes: tryptamines, lysergamides, and phenethylamines. Psychedelic tryptamines (e.g. psilocybin, 4-AcO-DMT) are either based on or derived from dimethyltryptamine (DMT), lysergamides (e.g. LSA, AL-LAD) from LSD, and phenethylamines (e.g. 2C-B, DOM) from mescaline.

Unlike other highly prohibited substances, most psychedelics have not been shown to be physiologically toxic and none have been shown to be addictive.^[1] However, adverse psychological reactions such as severe anxiety, paranoia, delusions, and psychosis are always possible, particularly for those predisposed to mental disorders.^[4]

As a result, it is highly advised to use harm reduction practices if using these substances.

Etymology

The term "psychedelic" was coined by psychiatrist Humphry Osmond in 1956 as an alternative descriptor for hallucinogens in the context of psychedelic psychotherapy.^[5]

Seeking a name for the experience induced by LSD, Osmond contacted Aldous Huxley, a personal acquaintance and advocate for the therapeutic use of the substance. Huxley coined the term "phanerothyme," from the Greek terms for "manifest" (φανερός) and "spirit" (θύμος).

In a letter to Osmond, he wrote:

To make this mundane world sublime,

Take half a gram of phanerothyme

To which Osmond responded:

To fathom Hell or soar angelic,

Just take a pinch of psychedelic^[6]

"Psychedelic" derives from the Greek words ψυχή (psyche, "soul, mind") and δηλείν (delein, "to manifest") which taken together mean "mind-manifesting" or "soul-manifesting." The implication was that psychedelics can allow one to access the soul and develop unused potentials of the human mind.^[7]^[8]

It was on this term that Osmond eventually settled, because it was "clear, euphonious and uncontaminated by other associations."^[9] This mongrel spelling of the word "psychedelic" was loathed by American ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes, but championed by Timothy Leary, who thought it sounded better.^[10]

Due to the expanded use of the term "psychedelic" in pop culture and a perceived incorrect verbal formulation, Carl A.P. Ruck, Jeremy Bigwood, Danny Staples, Jonathan Ott, and R. Gordon Wasson later proposed the term "entheogen" to describe the religious or spiritual experience produced by such substances.^[11]

Method of action

Figure 1 - Activation of the prefrontal network and glutamate release by psychedelics. The figure shows a model in which hallucinogens, such as psilocin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and dimethyltryptamine (DMT), increase extracellular glutamate levels in the prefrontal cortex through stimulation of postsynaptic serotonin 2A (5-HT_2A) receptors that are located on large glutamatergic pyramidal cells in deep cortical layers (V and VI) projecting to layer V pyramidal neurons.
This glutamate release leads to an activation of AMPA and NMDA receptors on cortical pyramidal neurons. in addition, hallucinogens directly activate 5-HT2A receptors located on cortical pyramidal neurons. This activation is thought to ultimately lead to increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).^[14]

Psychedelics act on serotonin receptors (also referred to as 5-HT receptors) via the way in which they act as full or partial agonists through their structural similarity to the serotonin molecule. It has a higher affinity than serotonin itself for the receptors, therefore preventing serotonin from binding to the receptors by competing with it.

While the method of action behind psychedelics is not fully understood, serotonergic psychedelics are known to show affinities for various 5-HT receptors and may be classified by their activity at different 5-HT subsites, such as 5-HT_1A, 5-HT_1B, 5-HT_2A, etc.

Many serotonergic psychedelics share very close chemical and structural similarities to serotonin itself. There is a consensus that serotonergic psychedelics produce their effects by acting as uniquely effective partial agonists at 5-HT_2A receptor sites.^[1]

Subjective effects

Disclaimer: The effects listed below cite the Subjective Effect Index (SEI), an open research literature based on anecdotal user reports and the personal analyses of PsychonautWiki contributors. As a result, they should be viewed with a healthy degree of skepticism.

It is also worth noting that these effects will not necessarily occur in a predictable or reliable manner, although higher doses are more liable to induce the full spectrum of effects. Likewise, adverse effects become increasingly likely with higher doses and may include addiction, severe injury, or death ☠.

Cognitive effects

Physical effects

Auditory effects

Multisensory effects

Chemical classes

*Psychedelic structural comparison diagram.*

The "classical psychedelics" are all classed as serotonergic in nature.^[1] This means that they structurally mimic the endogenous neurotransmitter known as serotonin, the neurotransmitter that regulates higher-level brain functions such as mood, sensory perception, cognition, and memory.^[2]

The diagram to the right shows the structural similarities and differences between the various classes of psychedelics and the serotonin neurotransmitter. The three classes (phenethylamines, lysergamides and tryptamines) all contain the same chemical rings (which have been labeled).

A represents the benzene ring, which all three classes contain.

B represents the pyrrole ring in both tryptamines and lysergamides.

A and B together form the indole ring.

C (cyclohexane) and D are only contained in the lysergamides, possibly contributing to their potency.

Examples

Benzofurans

Entheogens

Others

- Efavirenz

Toxicity and harm potential

Radar plot showing relative physical harm, social harm, and dependence of LSD and psilocybin, which can tentatively be taken to apply psychedelics as a whole.^[16]

While more research is needed, most psychedelics (and especially classical psychedelics) appear to be physiologically well-tolerated and have very low toxicity relative to dose.^[1] Most psychedelics have very few physical side effects associated with acute exposure.

Various studies have shown that, in reasonable doses in a sufficiently prepared context, they are unlikely to present negative physical, cognitive, psychiatric or other toxic consequences. There is no evidence that classical psychedelics cause damage to any human body organ.^[17]

However, it should be noted that some exceptions exist, such as some members of the 25x-NBOMe, 2C-T-x, DOx and 5-MeO series. Some substances of the NBOMe family, particularly 25I-NBOMe, have been associated with fatal overdoses.^[18]^[19]^[20]

However, while psychedelics are generally not capable of causing direct bodily harm or death, their use can still have serious negative consequences. For example, they are capable of impairing the judgment and attention of the user which may cause erratic or high-risk behaviors. In extreme cases, the user may fall under the delusion that they are a character in a dream or physically invincible which may cause them to jump off of a building or run into a busy road.^[1]

Additionally, intense negative experiences and psychotic episodes ("bad trips") can cause psychological trauma if not properly managed or treated. This is particularly a concern in non-supervised settings or when heavy doses are used.

Psychosis

Psychedelics may trigger or exacerbate symptoms (e.g. delusions, mania, psychosis) in those who have or are predisposed to mental illness such as bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.^[17] Those with a personal or family history of mental illness (including anxiety and depression) should not use LSD without the advice of a qualified medical professional.

Lethal dosage

Unlike many other illicit substances, psychedelics typically do not have established lethal dosages. There are no well-documented deaths attributable to the direct pharmacological action of any psychedelic, with the notable exception of the 25x-NBOMe, 2C-T-x, and 5-MeO series.

Dependence and abuse potential

Psychedelics are considered to have low abuse potential.^[17] There are no literature reports of successful attempts to train animals to self-administer psychedelics — an animal model predictive of abuse liability — indicating that it does not have the necessary pharmacology to either initiate or maintain dependence.^[17] Likewise, there is no human clinical evidence that psychedelics cause addiction. Finally, there is virtually no withdrawal syndrome when chronic use of these substances is stopped.^[21]

Tolerance to the effects of most psychedelics builds almost immediately after ingestion and hits a peak once the effects wear off. After that, it takes about 5-7 days for the tolerance to be reduced to half and 1-2 weeks to be back at baseline (in the absence of further consumption). Most psychedelics present cross tolerance with [[cross-tolerance:: all psychedelics]], meaning they will have a reduced effect.

Notable exceptions to this include DMT and related base tryptamines like DPT and MET, which are thought to produce little to no tolerance or cross-tolerance.

Another exception includes psychedelic phenethylamines like 2C-B. While the exact mechanism is not understood, generally tolerance is thought to rise immediately, but does not reach a peak unless with prolonged and repeated use. This means that the immediate tolerance does not rise as high as with lysergamides or tryptamines and can wear off faster and can be reduced to half within 1-2 days in the absence of further consumption. Mostly there will be less psychedelic and more stimulating effects.

Extremely high doses of psychedelics can also produce a tolerance which can last a significantly longer time than expected.

Dangerous interactions

Warning: Many psychoactive substances that are reasonably safe to use on their own can suddenly become dangerous and even life-threatening when combined with certain other substances. The following list provides some known dangerous interactions (although it is not guaranteed to include all of them).

Always conduct independent research (e.g. Google, DuckDuckGo, PubMed) to ensure that a combination of two or more substances is safe to consume. Some of the listed interactions have been sourced from TripSit.

[[Wikipedia:Lithium_(medication)|DangerousInteraction::Lithium]] - Lithium is commonly prescribed for the treatment of bipolar disorder. There is a large body of anecdotal evidence that suggests taking it with psychedelics significantly increases the risk of psychosis and seizures. As a result, this combination is strictly discouraged.
"[[UncertainInteraction" contains a listed "[" character as part of the property label and has therefore been classified as invalid.]] - Cannabis may have an unexpectedly strong and unpredictable synergy with the effects of Psychedelic. Caution is advised with this combination as it can significantly increase the risk of adverse psychological reactions like anxiety, paranoia, panic attacks, and psychosis. Users are advised to start off with only a fraction of their normal cannabis dose and take long breaks between hits to avoid unintentional overdose.
"[[UncertainInteraction" contains a listed "[" character as part of the property label and has therefore been classified as invalid.]] - Stimulants like amphetamine, cocaine or methylphenidate affect many parts of the brain and alter dopaminergic function. This combination can increase the risk of anxiety, paranoia, panic attacks, and thought loops. This interaction may also result in an elevated risk of mania and psychosis.^{[citation needed]}
"[[UnsafeInteraction" contains a listed "[" character as part of the property label and has therefore been classified as invalid.]] - Tramadol is well-documented to lower the seizure threshold^[22] and psychedelics may act to trigger seizures in susceptible individuals.^{[citation needed]}

External links

Psychedelics (Wikipedia)

Literature

Nichols, D. E. (2016). Psychedelics. Pharmacological Reviews, 68(2), 264-355. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.115.011478
Geyer, M. A., Nichols, D. E., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2009). Serotonin-Related Psychedelic Drugs. Encyclopedia of Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-008045046-9.01160-8
Preller, K. H., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2016). Phenomenology, Structure, and Dynamic of Psychedelic States. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_459
Vollenweider, F. X., & Kometer, M. (2010). The Neurobiology of Psychedelic Drugs: Implications for the Treatment of Mood Disorders. Nature Publishing Group, 11(9), 642–651. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2884
Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Goodwin, G. M. (2017). The Therapeutic Potential of Psychedelic Drugs: Past, Present, and Future. Neuropsychopharmacology. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2017.84
Nichols, C. D., & Sanders-Bush, E. (2001). Serotonin Receptor Signaling and Hallucinogenic Drug Action. Heffter Rev Psychedelic Res, 2, 73-79. https://web-beta.archive.org/web/20170110205041/https://heffter.org/docs/hrireview/02/chap5.pdf
Johansen, P. Ø., & Krebs, T. S. (2015). Psychedelics not linked to mental health problems or suicidal behavior: A population study. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 29(3), 270-279. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881114568039
Elsey, J. W. (2017). Psychedelic drug use in healthy individuals: A review of benefits, costs, and implications for drug policy. Drug Science, Policy and Law, 3, 2050324517723232. https://doi.org/10.1177/2050324517723232

References

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 ^1.3 ^1.4 ^1.5 ^1.6 Nichols, D. E. (April 2016). Barker, E. L., ed. "Psychedelics". Pharmacological Reviews. 68 (2): 264–355. doi:10.1124/pr.115.011478. ISSN 0031-6997.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 Nichols, D. E., Nichols, C. D. (1 May 2008). "Serotonin Receptors". Chemical Reviews. 108 (5): 1614–1641. doi:10.1021/cr078224o. ISSN 0009-2665.
↑ Dictionary - Entheogen | http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/entheogen
↑ Strassmann, Rick (1984). "Adverse reactions to psychedelic drugs. A review of the literature". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 172 (10): 577–595. doi:10.1097/00005053-198410000-00001. ISSN 0022-3018. OCLC 1754691. PMID 6384428.
↑ Murray, N. (2003). Aldous Huxley: a biography (1st U.S. ed ed.). Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin’s Press. ISBN 9780312302375. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)
↑ "Humphry Osmond". BMJ. 328 (7441): 713. 20 March 2004. doi:10.1136/bmj.328.7441.713. ISSN 0959-8138.
↑ Weil, A., Rosen, W. (1993). From Chocolate to Morphine: Everything You Need to Know about Mind-altering Drugs. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 9780395660799.
↑ Erowid Humphry Osmond Vault
↑ Martin, Douglas (2004-02-22). "Humphry Osmond, 86, Who Sought Medicinal Value in Psychedelic Drugs, Dies". New York Times. Retrieved 4 December 2010.
↑ Davis, W. (1996). One river: explorations and discoveries in the Amazon rain forest. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9780684808864.
↑ Wasson, R. G., Hofmann, A., Ruck, C. A. P. (2008). The road to Eleusis: unveiling the secret of the mysteries (30th anniversary ed ed.). North Atlantic Books. ISBN 9781556437526. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)
↑ Petri, G., Expert, P., Turkheimer, F., Carhart-Harris, R., Nutt, D., Hellyer, P. J., Vaccarino, F. (6 December 2014). "Homological scaffolds of brain functional networks". Journal of The Royal Society Interface. 11 (101): 20140873. doi:10.1098/rsif.2014.0873. ISSN 1742-5689.
↑ Carhart-Harris, R. L., Muthukumaraswamy, S., Roseman, L., Kaelen, M., Droog, W., Murphy, K., Tagliazucchi, E., Schenberg, E. E., Nest, T., Orban, C., Leech, R., Williams, L. T., Williams, T. M., Bolstridge, M., Sessa, B., McGonigle, J., Sereno, M. I., Nichols, D., Hellyer, P. J., Hobden, P., Evans, J., Singh, K. D., Wise, R. G., Curran, H. V., Feilding, A., Nutt, D. J. (26 April 2016). "Neural correlates of the LSD experience revealed by multimodal neuroimaging". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (17): 4853–4858. doi:10.1073/pnas.1518377113. ISSN 0027-8424.
↑ Vollenweider, F. X., Kometer, M. (September 2010). "The neurobiology of psychedelic drugs: implications for the treatment of mood disorders". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 11 (9): 642–651. doi:10.1038/nrn2884. ISSN 1471-003X.
↑ Lawrence, J., Psychedelics: entering a new age of addiction therapy
↑ Nutt, D., King, L. A., Saulsbury, W., Blakemore, C. (March 2007). "Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse". The Lancet. 369 (9566): 1047–1053. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4. ISSN 0140-6736.
↑ ^17.0 ^17.1 ^17.2 ^17.3 Nichols, D. E. (February 2004). "Hallucinogens". Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 101 (2): 131–181. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2003.11.002. ISSN 0163-7258.
↑ Walterscheid, J. P., Phillips, G. T., Lopez, A. E., Gonsoulin, M. L., Chen, H.-H., Sanchez, L. A. (March 2014). "Pathological Findings in 2 Cases of Fatal 25I-NBOMe Toxicity". American Journal of Forensic Medicine & Pathology. 35 (1): 20–25. doi:10.1097/PAF.0000000000000082. ISSN 0195-7910.
↑ Kueppers, V. B., Cooke, C. T. (April 2015). "25I-NBOMe related death in Australia: A case report". Forensic Science International. 249: e15–e18. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.02.010. ISSN 0379-0738.
↑ Shanks, K. G., Sozio, T., Behonick, G. S. (October 2015). "Fatal Intoxications with 25B-NBOMe and 25I-NBOMe in Indiana During 2014". Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 39 (8): 602–606. doi:10.1093/jat/bkv058. ISSN 0146-4760.
↑ Diaz, J. (1997). How drugs influence behavior: a neuro behavioral approach. Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780023287640.
↑ Talaie, H.; Panahandeh, R.; Fayaznouri, M. R.; Asadi, Z.; Abdollahi, M. (2009). "Dose-independent occurrence of seizure with tramadol". Journal of Medical Toxicology. 5 (2): 63–67. doi:10.1007/BF03161089. ISSN 1556-9039.

[Nichols2016-1] 1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 ^1.3 ^1.4 ^1.5 ^1.6 Nichols, D. E. (April 2016). Barker, E. L., ed. "Psychedelics". Pharmacological Reviews. 68 (2): 264–355. doi:10.1124/pr.115.011478. ISSN 0031-6997.

[nichols5HT-2] 2.0 ^2.1 Nichols, D. E., Nichols, C. D. (1 May 2008). "Serotonin Receptors". Chemical Reviews. 108 (5): 1614–1641. doi:10.1021/cr078224o. ISSN 0009-2665.

[3] Dictionary - Entheogen | http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/entheogen

[4] Strassmann, Rick (1984). "Adverse reactions to psychedelic drugs. A review of the literature". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 172 (10): 577–595. doi:10.1097/00005053-198410000-00001. ISSN 0022-3018. OCLC 1754691. PMID 6384428.

[5] Murray, N. (2003). Aldous Huxley: a biography (1st U.S. ed ed.). Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin’s Press. ISBN 9780312302375. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)

[6] "Humphry Osmond". BMJ. 328 (7441): 713. 20 March 2004. doi:10.1136/bmj.328.7441.713. ISSN 0959-8138.

[7] Weil, A., Rosen, W. (1993). From Chocolate to Morphine: Everything You Need to Know about Mind-altering Drugs. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 9780395660799.

[8] Erowid Humphry Osmond Vault

[9] Martin, Douglas (2004-02-22). "Humphry Osmond, 86, Who Sought Medicinal Value in Psychedelic Drugs, Dies". New York Times. Retrieved 4 December 2010.

[10] Davis, W. (1996). One river: explorations and discoveries in the Amazon rain forest. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9780684808864.

[11] Wasson, R. G., Hofmann, A., Ruck, C. A. P. (2008). The road to Eleusis: unveiling the secret of the mysteries (30th anniversary ed ed.). North Atlantic Books. ISBN 9781556437526. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)

[12] Petri, G., Expert, P., Turkheimer, F., Carhart-Harris, R., Nutt, D., Hellyer, P. J., Vaccarino, F. (6 December 2014). "Homological scaffolds of brain functional networks". Journal of The Royal Society Interface. 11 (101): 20140873. doi:10.1098/rsif.2014.0873. ISSN 1742-5689.

[13] Carhart-Harris, R. L., Muthukumaraswamy, S., Roseman, L., Kaelen, M., Droog, W., Murphy, K., Tagliazucchi, E., Schenberg, E. E., Nest, T., Orban, C., Leech, R., Williams, L. T., Williams, T. M., Bolstridge, M., Sessa, B., McGonigle, J., Sereno, M. I., Nichols, D., Hellyer, P. J., Hobden, P., Evans, J., Singh, K. D., Wise, R. G., Curran, H. V., Feilding, A., Nutt, D. J. (26 April 2016). "Neural correlates of the LSD experience revealed by multimodal neuroimaging". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (17): 4853–4858. doi:10.1073/pnas.1518377113. ISSN 0027-8424.

[14] Vollenweider, F. X., Kometer, M. (September 2010). "The neurobiology of psychedelic drugs: implications for the treatment of mood disorders". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 11 (9): 642–651. doi:10.1038/nrn2884. ISSN 1471-003X.

[15] Lawrence, J., Psychedelics: entering a new age of addiction therapy

[16] Nutt, D., King, L. A., Saulsbury, W., Blakemore, C. (March 2007). "Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse". The Lancet. 369 (9566): 1047–1053. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4. ISSN 0140-6736.

[Nichols2004-17] 17.0 ^17.1 ^17.2 ^17.3 Nichols, D. E. (February 2004). "Hallucinogens". Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 101 (2): 131–181. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2003.11.002. ISSN 0163-7258.

[18] Walterscheid, J. P., Phillips, G. T., Lopez, A. E., Gonsoulin, M. L., Chen, H.-H., Sanchez, L. A. (March 2014). "Pathological Findings in 2 Cases of Fatal 25I-NBOMe Toxicity". American Journal of Forensic Medicine & Pathology. 35 (1): 20–25. doi:10.1097/PAF.0000000000000082. ISSN 0195-7910.

[19] Kueppers, V. B., Cooke, C. T. (April 2015). "25I-NBOMe related death in Australia: A case report". Forensic Science International. 249: e15–e18. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.02.010. ISSN 0379-0738.

[20] Shanks, K. G., Sozio, T., Behonick, G. S. (October 2015). "Fatal Intoxications with 25B-NBOMe and 25I-NBOMe in Indiana During 2014". Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 39 (8): 602–606. doi:10.1093/jat/bkv058. ISSN 0146-4760.

[21] Diaz, J. (1997). How drugs influence behavior: a neuro behavioral approach. Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780023287640.

[22] Talaie, H.; Panahandeh, R.; Fayaznouri, M. R.; Asadi, Z.; Abdollahi, M. (2009). "Dose-independent occurrence of seizure with tramadol". Journal of Medical Toxicology. 5 (2): 63–67. doi:10.1007/BF03161089. ISSN 1556-9039.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 [[File:Oversoul by Alex Grey.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Oversoul'' by '''[http://alexgrey.com/art/paintings/soul/oversoul/ Alex Grey]''' - An example of [[psychedelic]] artwork created by the renowned visionary artist Alex Grey. This image is a representation of an experience report found in the 1901 book [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Consciousness ''Cosmic Consciousness''] ]]
-'''Psychedelics''' (also known as '''[[serotonergic]] [[hallucinogens]]''') are a class of [[psychoactive substances]] that produce an altered state of consciousness marked by unusual changes in perception, mood, and cognitive processes.<ref name="nicholsPSY">Nichols, D. E. (2016). Psychedelics. Pharmacological Reviews, 68(2), 264-355. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.115.011478</ref>
+'''Psychedelics''' (also known as '''[[serotonergic]] [[hallucinogens]]''') are a class of [[psychoactive substances]] that produce an altered state of consciousness marked by unusual changes in perception, mood, and cognitive processes.<ref name="Nichols2016">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Nichols, D. E.)) | veditors=((Barker, E. L.)) | journal=Pharmacological Reviews | title=Psychedelics | volume=68 | issue=2 | pages=264–355 | date= April 2016 | url=http://pharmrev.aspetjournals.org/lookup/doi/10.1124/pr.115.011478 | issn=0031-6997 | doi=10.1124/pr.115.011478}}</ref>
-While the precise mechanism of action is not known, psychedelic substances are thought to produce their effects by binding to [[serotonin]] ('''5'''-'''h'''ydroxy'''t'''ryptamine or '''5-HT''') [[receptors]] in the central nervous system, particularly the 5-HT<sub>2a</sub> subtype. Serotonin plays a number of critical roles throughout the human body and is a key [[neurotransmitter]] involved in the functioning and regulation of sensory perception, behavior, mood, cognition and memory.<ref name="nichols5HT">Nichols, D. E., & Nichols, C. D. (2008). Serotonin Receptors. Chemical Reviews, 108(5), 1614-1641. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr078224o</ref>
+While the precise mechanism of action is not known, psychedelic substances are thought to produce their effects by binding to [[serotonin]] ('''5'''-'''h'''ydroxy'''t'''ryptamine or '''5-HT''') [[receptors]] in the central nervous system, particularly the 5-HT<sub>2a</sub> subtype. Serotonin plays a number of critical roles throughout the human body and is a key [[neurotransmitter]] involved in the functioning and regulation of sensory perception, behavior, mood, cognition and memory.<ref name="nichols5HT">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Nichols, D. E.)), ((Nichols, C. D.)) | journal=Chemical Reviews | title=Serotonin Receptors | volume=108 | issue=5 | pages=1614–1641 | date=1 May 2008 | url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/cr078224o | issn=0009-2665 | doi=10.1021/cr078224o}}</ref>
-Human usage of psychedelics predates written history, and there is growing evidence that they were employed by early cultures in a variety of sociocultural and ritual contexts.<ref name="nicholsPSY" /> In modern times, psychedelic substances are used for a number of purposes that span from the traditional shamanic forms (such as the use of [[ayahuasca]] in the Amazon jungle, or [[peyote]] among Native Americans) to more modern forms of New Age spiritual, [[transpersonal]], or religious practices.
+Human usage of psychedelics predates written history, and there is growing evidence that they were employed by early cultures in a variety of sociocultural and ritual contexts.<ref name="Nichols2016"/> In modern times, psychedelic substances are used for a number of purposes that span from the traditional shamanic forms (such as the use of [[ayahuasca]] in the Amazon jungle, or [[peyote]] among Native Americans) to more modern forms of New Age spiritual, [[transpersonal]], or religious practices.
 Psychedelics, particularly those in the traditional or herbal forms, are sometimes referred to as [[entheogens]] (i.e. "generating the divine within")<ref>Dictionary - Entheogen | http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/entheogen</ref> by those who use them for these purposes, although they are also used in modern [[recreational drug use|recreational settings]].
@@ Line 11: / Line 11: @@
 [[Subjective effects]] can vary significantly depending on the subclass, but generally include some form of [[geometry|open and closed-eye visuals]], [[time distortion]], [[introspection|enhanced introspection]], [[conceptual thinking]], [[euphoria]], and [[ego loss]]. The so-called classical psychedelics, which consist of [[LSD]], [[psilocybin mushrooms]], [[mescaline]], and [[DMT]] ([[ayahuasca]]) are considered to produce the archetypal psychedelic effects and also have the most established safety profiles.
-Psychedelics can be divided into three major sub-classes: [[tryptamines]], [[lysergamides]], and [[phenethylamines]]. Psychedelic tryptamines (e.g. [[psilocybin mushrooms|psilocybin]], [[4-AcO-DMT]]) are either based on or derived from [[dimethyltryptamine]] (DMT), lyergamides (e.g. [[LSA]], [[AL-LAD]]) from [[LSD]], and phenethylamines (e.g. [[2C-B]]) on [[mescaline]].
+Psychedelics can be divided into three major sub-classes: [[tryptamines]], [[lysergamides]], and [[phenethylamines]]. Psychedelic tryptamines (e.g. [[psilocybin mushrooms|psilocybin]], [[4-AcO-DMT]]) are either based on or derived from [[dimethyltryptamine]] (DMT), lysergamides (e.g. [[LSA]], [[AL-LAD]]) from [[LSD]], and phenethylamines (e.g. [[2C-B]], [[DOM]]) from [[mescaline]].
-Unlike other highly prohibited substances, most psychedelics have not been shown to be physiologically toxic and none have been shown to be addictive.<ref name="nicholsPSY" /> However, adverse psychological reactions such as severe [[anxiety]], [[paranoia]], [[delusions]], and [[psychosis]] are always possible, particularly for those predisposed to mental disorders.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Strassmann|first=Rick|title=Adverse reactions to psychedelic drugs. A review of the literature|journal=Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease|volume=172|issue=10|pages=577–595|doi=10.1097/00005053-198410000-00001|pmid=6384428|year=1984|issn=0022-3018|oclc=1754691}}</ref> As a result, it is highly advised to use [[Harm reduction#Hallucinogens|harm reduction practices]] if using these substances.
+Unlike other highly prohibited substances, most psychedelics have not been shown to be physiologically toxic and none have been shown to be addictive.<ref name="Nichols2016"/> However, adverse psychological reactions such as severe [[anxiety]], [[paranoia]], [[delusions]], and [[psychosis]] are always possible, particularly for those predisposed to mental disorders.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Strassmann|first=Rick|title=Adverse reactions to psychedelic drugs. A review of the literature|journal=Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease|volume=172|issue=10|pages=577–595|doi=10.1097/00005053-198410000-00001|pmid=6384428|year=1984|issn=0022-3018|oclc=1754691}}</ref>
+As a result, it is highly advised to use [[Harm reduction#Hallucinogens|harm reduction practices]] if using these substances.
 ==Etymology==
-The term "psychedelic" was coined by psychiatrist Humphry Osmond in 1956 as an alternative descriptor for [[hallucinogens]] in the context of psychedelic psychotherapy.<ref>Nicholas Murray, ''Aldous Huxley: A Biography'', 419.</ref> Seeking a name for the experience induced by [[LSD]], Osmond contacted [[Aldous Huxley]], a personal acquaintance and advocate for the therapeutic use of the substance. Huxley coined the term "phanerothyme," from the Greek terms for "manifest" (φανερός) and "spirit" (θύμος).
+The term "psychedelic" was coined by psychiatrist Humphry Osmond in 1956 as an alternative descriptor for [[hallucinogens]] in the context of psychedelic psychotherapy.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Murray, N.)) | date= 2003 | title=Aldous Huxley: a biography | publisher=Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin’s Press | edition=1st U.S. ed | isbn=9780312302375}}</ref>
+Seeking a name for the experience induced by [[LSD]], Osmond contacted [[Aldous Huxley]], a personal acquaintance and advocate for the therapeutic use of the substance. Huxley coined the term "phanerothyme," from the Greek terms for "manifest" (φανερός) and "spirit" (θύμος).
 In a letter to Osmond, he wrote:
@@ Line 27: / Line 31: @@
 {{quote|
 To fathom Hell or soar angelic,</br>
-Just take a pinch of psychedelic<ref>Tanne, J. H. (2004). Humphry Osmond. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 328(7441), 713. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.328.7441.713</ref>}}
+Just take a pinch of psychedelic<ref>{{cite journal | journal=BMJ | title=Humphry Osmond | volume=328 | issue=7441 | pages=713 | date=20 March 2004 | url=https://www.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/bmj.328.7441.713 | issn=0959-8138 | doi=10.1136/bmj.328.7441.713}}</ref>}}
-"Psychedelic" derives from the Greek words ''ψυχή'' (psyche, "soul, mind") and ''δηλείν'' (delein, "to manifest") which taken together mean "mind-manifesting" or "soul-manifesting." The implication was that psychedelics can allow one to access the soul and develop unused potentials of the human mind.<ref>A. Weil, W. Rosen. (1993), ''From Chocolate To Morphine: Everything You Need To Know About Mind-Altering Drugs''.New York, Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 93</ref><ref>Erowid. (1998, August 9). Erowid Humphry Osmond Vault. Retrieved from https://erowid.org/culture/characters/osmond_humphry/osmond_humphry.shtml</ref>
+"Psychedelic" derives from the Greek words ''ψυχή'' (psyche, "soul, mind") and ''δηλείν'' (delein, "to manifest") which taken together mean "mind-manifesting" or "soul-manifesting." The implication was that psychedelics can allow one to access the soul and develop unused potentials of the human mind.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Weil, A.)), ((Rosen, W.)) | date= 1993 | title=From Chocolate to Morphine: Everything You Need to Know about Mind-altering Drugs | publisher=Houghton Mifflin | isbn=9780395660799}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | title=Erowid Humphry Osmond Vault | url=https://erowid.org/culture/characters/osmond_humphry/osmond_humphry.shtml}}</ref>
-It was on this term that Osmond eventually settled, because it was "clear, euphonious and uncontaminated by other associations."<ref>{{cite news |first= Douglas |last= Martin|coauthors= |title= Humphry Osmond, 86, Who Sought Medicinal Value in Psychedelic Drugs, Dies|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/22/us/humphry-osmond-86-who-sought-medicinal-value-in-psychedelic-drugs-dies.html?pagewanted=2|work= [[New York Times]]|publisher= |date= 2004-02-22|accessdate=4 December 2010 }}</ref> This mongrel spelling of the word "psychedelic" was loathed by American ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes, but championed by Timothy Leary, who thought it sounded better.<ref>W. Davis (1996), ''One River: Explorations and Discoveries in the Amazon Rain Forest''. New York, [[Simon & Schuster]], Inc. p. 120</ref>
+It was on this term that Osmond eventually settled, because it was "clear, euphonious and uncontaminated by other associations."<ref>{{cite news |first= Douglas |last= Martin|coauthors= |title= Humphry Osmond, 86, Who Sought Medicinal Value in Psychedelic Drugs, Dies|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/22/us/humphry-osmond-86-who-sought-medicinal-value-in-psychedelic-drugs-dies.html?pagewanted=2|work= [[New York Times]]|publisher= |date= 2004-02-22|accessdate=4 December 2010 }}</ref> This mongrel spelling of the word "psychedelic" was loathed by American ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes, but championed by Timothy Leary, who thought it sounded better.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Davis, W.)) | date= 1996 | title=One river: explorations and discoveries in the Amazon rain forest | publisher=Simon & Schuster | isbn=9780684808864}}</ref>
-Due to the expanded use of the term "psychedelic" in pop culture and a perceived incorrect verbal formulation, Carl A.P. Ruck, Jeremy Bigwood, Danny Staples, [[Jonathan Ott]], and [[R. Gordon Wasson]] later proposed the term "[[entheogen]]" to describe the religious or spiritual experience produced by such substances.<ref>[[R. Gordon Wasson]], [[Albert Hofmann]], and Carl A.P. Ruck, ''The Road to Eleusis: Unveiling the Secret of the Mysteries'' (North Atlantic Books, 2008), pgs. 138-139</ref>
+Due to the expanded use of the term "psychedelic" in pop culture and a perceived incorrect verbal formulation, Carl A.P. Ruck, Jeremy Bigwood, Danny Staples, [[Jonathan Ott]], and [[R. Gordon Wasson]] later proposed the term "[[entheogen]]" to describe the religious or spiritual experience produced by such substances.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Wasson, R. G.)), ((Hofmann, A.)), ((Ruck, C. A. P.)) | date= 2008 | title=The road to Eleusis: unveiling the secret of the mysteries | publisher=North Atlantic Books | edition=30th anniversary ed | isbn=9781556437526}}</ref>
 ==Method of action==
-[[File:Psilocybin neural connections.jpg|350px|thumbnail|right|The diagram above demonstrates the neural connections associated with sobriety in comparison to being under the influence of psilocybin as demonstrated through the use of MRI scans. The width of the links is proportional to their weight and the size of the nodes is proportional to their strength. Note that the proportion of heavy links between communities is much higher (and very different) in the psilocybin group, suggesting greater integration<ref>Petri, G., Expert, P., Turkheimer, F., Nutt, D., Hellyer, P. J., & Vaccarino, F. (2014). Homological scaffolds of brain functional networks, 14–18. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2014.0873</ref>]]
+[[File:Psilocybin neural connections.jpg|350px|thumbnail|right|The diagram above demonstrates the neural connections associated with sobriety in comparison to being under the influence of psilocybin as demonstrated through the use of MRI scans. <p>The width of the links is proportional to their weight and the size of the nodes is proportional to their strength. Note that the proportion of heavy links between communities is much higher (and very different) in the psilocybin group, suggesting greater integration<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Petri, G.)), ((Expert, P.)), ((Turkheimer, F.)), ((Carhart-Harris, R.)), ((Nutt, D.)), ((Hellyer, P. J.)), ((Vaccarino, F.)) | journal=Journal of The Royal Society Interface | title=Homological scaffolds of brain functional networks | volume=11 | issue=101 | pages=20140873 | date=6 December 2014 | url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsif.2014.0873 | issn=1742-5689 | doi=10.1098/rsif.2014.0873}}</ref>]]
-[[File:Lsd brain scan.jpg|thumbnail|350px|right|This image shows how, with eyes-closed, much more of the brain contributes to the visual experience under LSD (right image) than under placebo (left image). The magnitude of this effect correlates with participants’ reports of complex, dreamlike visions.<ref>Carhart-Harris, R. L., Muthukumaraswamy, S., Roseman, L., Kaelen, M., Droog, W., Murphy, K., … Nutt, D. J. (2016). Neural correlates of the LSD experience revealed by multimodal neuroimaging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1518377113</ref>]]
+[[File:Lsd brain scan.jpg|thumbnail|350px|right|This image shows how, with eyes-closed, much more of the brain contributes to the visual experience under LSD (right image) than under placebo (left image). The magnitude of this effect correlates with participants’ reports of complex, dreamlike visions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Carhart-Harris, R. L.)), ((Muthukumaraswamy, S.)), ((Roseman, L.)), ((Kaelen, M.)), ((Droog, W.)), ((Murphy, K.)), ((Tagliazucchi, E.)), ((Schenberg, E. E.)), ((Nest, T.)), ((Orban, C.)), ((Leech, R.)), ((Williams, L. T.)), ((Williams, T. M.)), ((Bolstridge, M.)), ((Sessa, B.)), ((McGonigle, J.)), ((Sereno, M. I.)), ((Nichols, D.)), ((Hellyer, P. J.)), ((Hobden, P.)), ((Evans, J.)), ((Singh, K. D.)), ((Wise, R. G.)), ((Curran, H. V.)), ((Feilding, A.)), ((Nutt, D. J.)) | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | title=Neural correlates of the LSD experience revealed by multimodal neuroimaging | volume=113 | issue=17 | pages=4853–4858 | date=26 April 2016 | url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1518377113 | issn=0027-8424 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1518377113}}</ref>]]
-[[File:NeuroPsychDiagram.png|thumbnail|350px|right|Figure 1 - Activation of the prefrontal network and glutamate release by psychedelics. The figure shows a model in which hallucinogens, such as psilocin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and dimethyltryptamine (DMT), increase extracellular glutamate levels in the prefrontal cortex through stimulation of postsynaptic serotonin 2A (5-HT<sub>2A</sub>) receptors that are located on large glutamatergic pyramidal cells in deep cortical layers (V and VI) projecting to layer V pyramidal neurons. This glutamate release leads to an activation of [[AMPA]] and [[NMDA]] receptors on cortical pyramidal neurons. in addition, hallucinogens directly activate 5-HT2A receptors located on cortical pyramidal neurons. This activation is thought to ultimately lead to increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).<ref>Vollenweider, F. X., & Kometer, M. (2010). The Neurobiology of Psychedelic Drugs: Implications for the Treatment of Mood Disorders. Nature Publishing Group, 11(9), 642–651. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2884</ref>]]
+[[File:NeuroPsychDiagram.png|thumbnail|350px|right|Figure 1 - Activation of the prefrontal network and glutamate release by psychedelics. The figure shows a model in which hallucinogens, such as psilocin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and dimethyltryptamine (DMT), increase extracellular glutamate levels in the prefrontal cortex through stimulation of postsynaptic serotonin 2A (5-HT<sub>2A</sub>) receptors that are located on large glutamatergic pyramidal cells in deep cortical layers (V and VI) projecting to layer V pyramidal neurons. <p>This glutamate release leads to an activation of [[AMPA]] and [[NMDA]] receptors on cortical pyramidal neurons. in addition, hallucinogens directly activate 5-HT2A receptors located on cortical pyramidal neurons. This activation is thought to ultimately lead to increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Vollenweider, F. X.)), ((Kometer, M.)) | journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience | title=The neurobiology of psychedelic drugs: implications for the treatment of mood disorders | volume=11 | issue=9 | pages=642–651 | date= September 2010 | url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn2884 | issn=1471-003X | doi=10.1038/nrn2884}}</ref>]]
 {{Further|Serotonergic psychedelic}}
 Psychedelics act on [[serotonin]] [[receptors]] (also referred to as 5-HT receptors) via the way in which they act as full or partial [[agonist]]s through their structural similarity to the [[serotonin]] molecule. It has a higher affinity than serotonin itself for the receptors, therefore preventing serotonin from binding to the receptors by competing with it.
@@ Line 44: / Line 48: @@
 While the method of action behind psychedelics is not fully understood, serotonergic psychedelics are known to show affinities for various 5-HT receptors and may be classified by their activity at different 5-HT subsites, such as 5-HT<sub>1A</sub>, 5-HT<sub>1B</sub>, 5-HT<sub>2A</sub>, etc.
-Many serotonergic psychedelics share very close chemical and structural similarities to serotonin itself. There is a consensus that serotonergic psychedelics produce their effects by acting as uniquely effective [[Agonist#Agonists|partial agonists]] at 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptor sites.<ref name="nicholspsy">Nichols, D. E. (2016). Psychedelics. ''Pharmacological Reviews'', 68(2), 264-355. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.115.011478</ref>
+Many serotonergic psychedelics share very close chemical and structural similarities to serotonin itself. There is a consensus that serotonergic psychedelics produce their effects by acting as uniquely effective [[Agonist#Agonists|partial agonists]] at 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptor sites.<ref name="Nichols2016"/>
 ==Subjective effects==
@@ Line 137: / Line 141: @@
 *[[Thought disorganization]]
 *[[Personal bias suppression]]
-*[[Addiction suppression]]<ref>Psychedelics: entering a new age of addiction therapy | http://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/news-and-analysis/features/psychedelics-entering-a-new-age-of-addiction-therapy/20066899.article#fn_link_1</ref>
+*[[Addiction suppression]]<ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((Lawrence, J.)) | title=Psychedelics: entering a new age of addiction therapy | url=https://pharmaceutical-journal.com/article/feature/psychedelics-entering-a-new-age-of-addiction-therapy}}</ref>
 *[[Memory suppression]]
 **[[Ego death]]
@@ Line 148: / Line 152: @@
 *[[Déjà vu]]
 *[[Delusion|Delusions]]
+*[[Depression reduction]]
 *[[Perceived exposure to inner mechanics of consciousness]]
 *[[Introspection]]
@@ Line 255: / Line 260: @@
 ==Chemical classes==
 [[File:molecules.png|351px|thumb|right|''Psychedelic structural comparison diagram.'']]
-The "classical psychedelics" are all classed as [[Serotonergic psychedelic|serotonergic]] in nature.<ref name="nicholspsy" /> This means that they structurally mimic the endogenous [[neurotransmitter]] known as [[serotonin]], the neurotransmitter that regulates higher-level brain functions such as mood, sensory perception, cognition, and memory.<ref name="nichols5HT" />
+The "classical psychedelics" are all classed as [[Serotonergic psychedelic|serotonergic]] in nature.<ref name="Nichols2016"/> This means that they structurally mimic the endogenous [[neurotransmitter]] known as [[serotonin]], the neurotransmitter that regulates higher-level brain functions such as mood, sensory perception, cognition, and memory.<ref name="nichols5HT" />
 The diagram to the right shows the structural similarities and differences between the various classes of psychedelics and the serotonin neurotransmitter.
@@ Line 549: / Line 554: @@
 ==Toxicity and harm potential==
-[[File:harmchart.png|thumb|right|315px|Radar plot showing relative physical harm, social harm, and dependence of LSD and psilocybin, which can tentatively be taken to apply psychedelics as a whole.<ref>Nutt, D., King, L. A., Saulsbury, W., & Blakemore, C. (2007). Development of a Rational Scale to Assess the Harm of Drugs of Potential Misuse, 1047–1053. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4</ref>]]
+[[File:harmchart.png|thumb|right|315px|Radar plot showing relative physical harm, social harm, and dependence of LSD and psilocybin, which can tentatively be taken to apply psychedelics as a whole.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Nutt, D.)), ((King, L. A.)), ((Saulsbury, W.)), ((Blakemore, C.)) | journal=The Lancet | title=Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse | volume=369 | issue=9566 | pages=1047–1053 | date= March 2007 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673607604644 | issn=01406736 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4}}</ref>]]
+While more research is needed, most psychedelics (and especially classical psychedelics) appear to be physiologically well-tolerated and have [[Toxicity::very low toxicity]] relative to dose.<ref name="Nichols2016"/> Most psychedelics have very few physical side effects associated with acute exposure.
+Various studies have shown that, in reasonable doses in a sufficiently [[Set and setting|prepared context]], they are unlikely to present negative physical, cognitive, psychiatric or other toxic consequences. There is no evidence that classical psychedelics cause damage to any human body organ.<ref name="Nichols2004">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Nichols, D. E.)) | journal=Pharmacology & Therapeutics | title=Hallucinogens | volume=101 | issue=2 | pages=131–181 | date= February 2004 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0163725803001657 | issn=01637258 | doi=10.1016/j.pharmthera.2003.11.002}}</ref>
+However, it should be noted that some exceptions exist, such as some members of the [[25x-NBOMe]], [[2C-T-x]], [[DOx]] and 5-MeO series. Some substances of the [[Nbome|NBOMe]] family, particularly [[25I-NBOMe]], have been associated with fatal overdoses.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Walterscheid, J. P.)), ((Phillips, G. T.)), ((Lopez, A. E.)), ((Gonsoulin, M. L.)), ((Chen, H.-H.)), ((Sanchez, L. A.)) | journal=American Journal of Forensic Medicine & Pathology | title=Pathological Findings in 2 Cases of Fatal 25I-NBOMe Toxicity | volume=35 | issue=1 | pages=20–25 | date= March 2014 | url=https://journals.lww.com/00000433-201403000-00007 | issn=0195-7910 | doi=10.1097/PAF.0000000000000082}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Kueppers, V. B.)), ((Cooke, C. T.)) | journal=Forensic Science International | title=25I-NBOMe related death in Australia: A case report | volume=249 | pages=e15–e18 | date= April 2015 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0379073815000730 | issn=03790738 | doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.02.010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Shanks, K. G.)), ((Sozio, T.)), ((Behonick, G. S.)) | journal=Journal of Analytical Toxicology | title=Fatal Intoxications with 25B-NBOMe and 25I-NBOMe in Indiana During 2014 | volume=39 | issue=8 | pages=602–606 | date= October 2015 | url=https://academic.oup.com/jat/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/jat/bkv058 | issn=0146-4760 | doi=10.1093/jat/bkv058}}</ref>
+However, while psychedelics are generally not capable of causing direct bodily harm or death, their use can still have serious negative consequences. For example, they are capable of impairing the judgment and attention of the user which may cause erratic or high-risk behaviors. In extreme cases, the user may fall under the [[delusion]] that they are a character in a dream or physically invincible which may cause them to jump off of a building or run into a busy road.<ref name="Nichols2016"></ref>
-While more research is needed, most psychedelics (and especially classical psychedelics) appear to be physiologically well-tolerated and have [[Toxicity::very low toxicity]] relative to dose.<ref name="nicholsPSY" /> Most psychedelics have very few physical side effects associated with acute exposure. Various studies have shown that, in reasonable doses in a sufficiently [[Set and setting|prepared context]], they are unlikely to present negative physical, cognitive, psychiatric or other toxic consequences. There is no evidence that classical psychedelics cause damage to any human body organ.<ref>Nichols, D. E. (2004). Hallucinogens. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 101(2), 131-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2003.11.002</ref> However it should be noted that some exceptions exist, such as some members of the [[25x-NBOMe]], [[2C-T-x]], [[DOB]] and 5-MeO series. Some substances of the [[Nbome|NBOMe]] family particularly [[25I-NBOMe]] have been associated with fatal overdoses.<ref>Walterscheid, J. P., Phillips, G. T., Lopez, A. E., Gonsoulin, M. L., Chen, H. H., & Sanchez, L. A. (2014). Pathological findings in 2 cases of fatal 25I-NBOMe toxicity. ''The American journal of forensic medicine and pathology'', ''35''(1), 20-25. https://doi.org/10.1097/paf.0000000000000082</ref><ref>Kueppers, V. B., & Cooke, C. T. (2015). 25I-NBOMe related death in Australia: a case report. ''Forensic science international'', ''249'', e15-e18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.02.010</ref><ref>Shanks, K. G., Sozio, T., & Behonick, G. S. (2015). Fatal intoxications with 25B-NBOMe and 25I-NBOMe in Indiana during 2014. ''Journal of analytical toxicology'', ''39''(8), 602-606. https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/bkv058</ref>
+Additionally, intense negative experiences and psychotic episodes ([[bad trips|"bad trips"]]) can cause psychological trauma if not properly managed or treated. This is particularly a concern in non-[[trip sitter|supervised settings]] or when heavy doses are used.
-However, while psychedelics may not be capable of causing direct bodily harm or death, they can still have serious negative consequences. For example, they are capable of impairing the judgment and attention of users which may cause erratic or high-risk behaviors. In extreme cases, users may fall under the [[delusion]] that they are a character in a dream or physically invincible which may cause them to jump off of a building or run into a busy road.<ref name="Nichols2016"></ref> Additionally, intense negative experiences and psychotic episodes ([[bad trips|"bad trips"]]) can cause psychological trauma if not properly managed or treated. This is particularly a concern in non-[[trip sitter|supervised settings]] or when heavy doses are used.
+===Psychosis===
-Psychedelics may trigger or exacerbate symptoms (e.g. [[delusions]], [[mania]], [[psychosis]]) in those who have or are predisposed to mental illness such as bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.<ref name="hallucinogens" /> Those with a personal or family history of mental illness (including anxiety and depression) should not use LSD without the advice of a qualified medical professional.
+Psychedelics may trigger or exacerbate symptoms (e.g. [[delusions]], [[mania]], [[psychosis]]) in those who have or are predisposed to mental illness such as bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.<ref name="Nichols2004"/> Those with a personal or family history of mental illness (including anxiety and depression) should not use LSD without the advice of a qualified medical professional.
 ===Lethal dosage===
@@ Line 561: / Line 574: @@
 ===Dependence and abuse potential===
-Psychedelics are considered to have [[Addiction potential::low abuse potential]].<ref name="hallucinogens" /> There are no literature reports of successful attempts to train animals to self-administer psychedelics — an animal model predictive of abuse liability — indicating that it does not have the necessary pharmacology to either initiate or maintain dependence.<ref name="hallucinogens" /> Likewise, there is no human clinical evidence that psychedelics cause addiction. Finally, there is virtually no withdrawal syndrome when chronic use of these substances is stopped.<ref>Diaz, Jaime (1996). How Drugs Influence Behavior: A Neurobehavioral Approach. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780023287640</ref>
+Psychedelics are considered to have [[Addiction potential::low abuse potential]].<ref name="Nichols2004"/> There are no literature reports of successful attempts to train animals to self-administer psychedelics — an animal model predictive of abuse liability — indicating that it does not have the necessary pharmacology to either initiate or maintain dependence.<ref name="Nichols2004"/> Likewise, there is no human clinical evidence that psychedelics cause addiction. Finally, there is virtually no withdrawal syndrome when chronic use of these substances is stopped.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Diaz, J.)) | date= 1997 | title=How drugs influence behavior: a neuro behavioral approach | publisher=Prentice Hall | isbn=9780023287640}}</ref>
 Tolerance to the effects of most psychedelics builds [[Time to full tolerance::almost immediately after ingestion]] and hits a peak once the effects wear off. After that, it takes about 5-7 days for the tolerance to be reduced to half and 1-2 weeks to be back at baseline (in the absence of further consumption). Most psychedelics present cross tolerance with [[cross-tolerance:: all [[psychedelics]]]], meaning they will have a reduced effect.
-Notable exceptions to this include [[DMT]] and related tryptamines like [[DPT]] and [[MET]], which are thought to produce little to no tolerance or cross-tolerance. Another exception includes psychedelic [[phenethylamines]] like [[2C-B]]. While the exact mechanism is not understood, generally tolerance is thought to rise immediately, but does not reach a peak unless with prolonged and repeated use. This means that the immediate tolerance does not rise as high as with [[lysergamides]] or [[tryptamines]] and can wear off faster and can be reduced to half within 1-2 days in the absence of further consumption. Mostly there will be less psychedelic and more stimulating effects.
+Notable exceptions to this include [[DMT]] and related base tryptamines like [[DPT]] and [[MET]], which are thought to produce little to no tolerance or cross-tolerance.
+Another exception includes psychedelic [[phenethylamines]] like [[2C-B]]. While the exact mechanism is not understood, generally tolerance is thought to rise immediately, but does not reach a peak unless with prolonged and repeated use. This means that the immediate tolerance does not rise as high as with [[lysergamides]] or [[tryptamines]] and can wear off faster and can be reduced to half within 1-2 days in the absence of further consumption. Mostly there will be less psychedelic and more stimulating effects.
 Extremely high doses of psychedelics can also produce a tolerance which can last a significantly longer time than expected.
@@ Line 602: / Line 617: @@
 [[Category:Hallucinogen]]
 [[Category:Psychedelic|*]]
+{{#set:Featured=true}}

Psychedelic: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 20:36, 24 April 2025

Etymology

Method of action

Subjective effects

Enhancements

Distortions

Hallucinatory states

Enhancements

Suppressions

Alterations

Transpersonal states

Physical effects

Enhancements

Suppression

Alterations

Uncomfortable effects

Auditory effects

Multisensory effects

Chemical classes

Examples

2C-x series

2C-T-x series

DOx series

25x-NBOMe series

25x-NBOH series

Others

Others

Toxicity and harm potential

Psychosis

Lethal dosage

Dependence and abuse potential

Dangerous interactions

See also

External links

Literature

References

Navigation menu

Search