This is an unofficial archive of PsychonautWiki as of 2025-08-08T03:33:20Z. Content on this page may be outdated, incomplete, or inaccurate. Please refer to the original page for the most up-to-date information.
WARNING: Always start with lower doses due to differences between individual body weight, tolerance, metabolism, and personal sensitivity. See responsible use section.
DISCLAIMER: PW's dosage information is gathered from users and resources for educational purposes only. It is not a recommendation and should be verified with other sources for accuracy.
Choline is a chemical substance which serves as a precursor to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the brain. Choline is an essential nutrient in humans, with documented roles in reducing the risk of neural tube defects, fatty liver disease and other pathologies.[1] It is also used in the synthesis of components in cell membranes.[2] Choline is rarely sold as a free base; it is generally combined with an acid to form a salt such as choline bitartrate for stability, or conjugated into one of the more complex forms such as citicoline.
Choline supplementation can be used in the treatment of liver disorders,[3][4] hepatitis, glaucoma,[5] atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease,[6] bipolar disorder[7] and possibly other neurological disorders.[1] It has also been shown to have a positive effect on those suffering from alcoholism.[8][9]
When taken as a supplement, this compound has been reported to produce nootropic effects. It is easily available and commonly sold for this purpose through the use of online supplement vendors.
Choline is comprised of a quaternary ammonium group and an alcohol functional group, which are connected through an ethyl chain. Its charged cation can bind to a negative group or atom to form various salts, which can produce varying effects. Choline chloridea can form a low-melting deep eutectic solvent mixture with urea with unusual properties.[10] The common choline bitartrate is a white crystalline powder with a melting point of 149-153 °C.[11]
As with other salt forms, not all of the mass of a choline salt is choline. For choline bitartrate, 104.17/253.25 = 41.1% of its mass is the choline cation, the rest being the bitartrate anion. For supplements made to US labelling standards, no conversion is necessary: the amount given is for choline. The field of nutrition, for now, does not apply an analogous conversion to non-salt forms of choline such as the phospholipid forms and Alpha-GPC.[12]
Pharmacology
Choline and its metabolites are needed for three main physiological purposes:
Phospholipid synthesis. Choline is required to make various phospholipids, which make up the cell membrane and signaling lipid rafts.[13] Neural lipid rafts are receiving increasing attention in the field of psychiatry.[14]
Cholinergic neurotransmission, as a precursor to acetylcholine synthesis.[2] Supplemental choline may allow acetylcholine to accumulate at higher levels than that which it otherwise would. As acetylcholine is involved in the function of memory, this could potentially account for its nootropic effects.[citation needed]
Trimethylamine (betaine) production. Trimethylamine is necessary for osmoregulation. It also participates in SAM-e synthesis.[2]
Subjective effects
Disclaimer: The effects listed below cite the Subjective Effect Index (SEI), an open research literature based on anecdotal user reports and the personal analyses of PsychonautWikicontributors. As a result, they should be viewed with a healthy degree of skepticism.
It is also worth noting that these effects will not necessarily occur in a predictable or reliable manner, although higher doses are more liable to induce the full spectrum of effects. Likewise, adverse effects become increasingly likely with higher doses and may include addiction, severe injury, or death ☠.
Physical effects
Stimulation - The stimulation which choline presents can be considered as primarily subtle, less than that of caffeine.
Body odor alteration - This occurs in some populations, especially those suffering from trimethylaminuria. Choline is a precursor to trimethylamine, which some persons are not able to easily break down, often resulting in a "fishy smell."[15]
There are currently no anecdotal reports which describe the effects of this compound within our experience index. Additional experience reports can be found here:
As choline is a natural precursor to acetylcholine which is naturally found in the body, it is well tolerated and therefore unlikely to be harmful in any way. Choline is non-addictive, is not known to cause brain damage, and has an extremely low toxicity relative to dose. Similar to many other nootropics substances, there are relatively few physical side effects associated with acute choline exposure. Various studies have shown that in reasonable doses in a careful context, it presents no negative cognitive, psychiatric or toxic physical consequences of any sort.
Choline is not habit-forming and the desire to use it can actually decrease with use. It is most often self-regulating.
Tolerance to the effects of choline are built after prolonged and repeated usage. After that, it takes about 7 days for the tolerance to be reduced to half and 14 days to be back at baseline (in the absence of further consumption). Choline presents cross-tolerance with no other known compounds, meaning that after the consumption of choline, other psychoactive compounds will not have a reduced effect.
As such, it may contain incomplete or wrong information. You can help by expanding it.
Germany: Choline bitartrate is an approved dietary supplement.[16]
United States: In the United States, choline is legal as a dietary supplement. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires choline to be in non-dairy infant formula.[17]
Abbott, A. P., Capper, G., Davies, D. L., Rasheed, R. K., & Tambyrajah, V. (2003). Novel solvent properties of choline chloride/urea mixtures. Chemical Communications, 99(1), 70–71. https://doi.org/10.1039/b210714g
Behari, J., Yeh, T.-H., Krauland, L., Otruba, W., Cieply, B., Hauth, B., … Monga, S. P. S. (2010). Liver-Specific B-Catenin Knockout Mice Exhibit Defective Bile Acid and Cholesterol Homeostasis and Increased Susceptibility to Diet-Induced Steatohepatitis. The American Journal of Pathology, 176(2), 744–753. https://doi.org/10.2353/ajpath.2010.090667
Chan, K. C., So, K. fai, & Wu, E. X. (2009). Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy revealed choline reduction in the visual cortex in an experimental model of chronic glaucoma. Experimental Eye Research, 88(1), 65–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2008.10.002
Doggrell, S. a, & Evans, S. (2003). Treatment of dementia with neurotransmission modulation. Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs, 12(10), 1633–54. https://doi.org/10.1517/13543784.12.10.1633
Glier, M. B., Green, T. J., & Devlin, A. M. (2014). Methyl nutrients, DNA methylation, and cardiovascular disease. Molecular Nutrition and Food Research, 58(1), 172–182. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201200636
Klatskin, G. (1954). the Effect of Alcohol on the Choline Requirement: Ii. Incidence of Renal Necrosis in Weanling Rats Following Short Term Ingestion of Alcohol. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 100(6), 615–627. https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.100.6.615
Nery, F. G., Stanley, J. A., Chen, H.-H., Hatch, J. P., Nicoletti, M. A., Serap Monkul, E., … Soares, J. C. (2010). Bipolar disorder comorbid with alcoholism: A 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 44(5), 278–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.09.006
Parnetti, L., Mignini, F., Tomassoni, D., Traini, E., & Amenta, F. (2007). Cholinergic precursors in the treatment of cognitive impairment of vascular origin: Ineffective approaches or need for re-evaluation? Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 257(1–2), 264–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2007.01.043
Stoll, A. L., Sachs, G. S., Cohen, B. M., Lafer, B., Christensen, J. D., & Renshaw, P. F. (1996). Choline in the treatment of rapid-cycling bipolar disorder: Clinical and neurochemical findings in lithium-treated patients. Biological Psychiatry, 40(5), 382–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(95)00423-8
Tolvanen, T., Yli-Kerttula, T., Ujula, T., Autio, A., Lehikoinen, P., Minn, H., & Roivainen, A. (2010). Biodistribution and radiation dosimetry of [11C]choline: A comparison between rat and human data. European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, 37(5), 874–883. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00259-009-1346-z
Van Beek, A. H. E. A., & Claassen, J. A. H. R. (2011). The cerebrovascular role of the cholinergic neural system in Alzheimer’s disease. Behavioural Brain Research, 221(2), 537–542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2009.12.047
(4th ed.). Taylor & Francis. pp. 459–477. ISBN 9780849340222.