This is an unofficial archive of PsychonautWiki as of 2025-08-11T15:14:44Z. Content on this page may be outdated, incomplete, or inaccurate. Please refer to the original page for the most up-to-date information.
'''Psychedelics''' (also known as '''serotonergic [[hallucinogens]]''') are a class of [[psychoactive substances]] that produce profound alterations in perception, mood and numerous cognitive processes.<ref name="nicholsPSY>Nichols, D. E. (2016). Psychedelics. Pharmacological Reviews, 68(2), 264-355. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.115.011478</ref>
'''Psychedelics''' (also known as '''serotonergic [[hallucinogens]]''') are a class of [[psychoactive substances]] that produce profound alterations in perception, mood and numerous cognitive processes.<ref name="nicholsPSY>Nichols, D. E. (2016). Psychedelics. Pharmacological Reviews, 68(2), 264-355. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.115.011478</ref>
Psychedelics are thought to exert their behavioral effects by binding to and [[agonist|activating]] the receptors for [[serotonin]] ('''5'''-'''h'''ydroxy'''t'''ryptamine or 5-HT), particularly the subtype known as 5-HT<sub>2a</sub>. Serotonin plays a number of critical roles all throughout the human body and is a key [[neurotransmitter]] involved in the functioning and regulation of sensory perception, behavior, mood, cognition and memory.<ref name=nichols5HT>Nichols, D. E., & Nichols, C. D. (2008). Serotonin Receptors. Chemical Reviews, 108(5), 1614-1641. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr078224o</ref>
While the precise mechanism is not understood, psychedelics are thought to produce their characteristic effects by binding to and [[agonist|activating]] the [[receptors]] for [[serotonin]] ('''5'''-'''h'''ydroxy'''t'''ryptamine or 5-HT), particularly the 5-HT<sub>2a</sub> subtype. Serotonin plays a number of critical roles all throughout the human body and is a key [[neurotransmitter]] involved in the functioning and regulation of sensory perception, behavior, mood, cognition and memory.<ref name=nichols5HT>Nichols, D. E., & Nichols, C. D. (2008). Serotonin Receptors. Chemical Reviews, 108(5), 1614-1641. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr078224o</ref>
The term "psychedelic" was coined by the British psychiatrist Humphrey Osmond in 1956. It derives from the Greek words ''ψυχή'' (psyche, "soul, mind") and ''δηλείν'' (delein, "to manifest") which taken together mean "soul-manifesting," with the implication being that psychedelics can allow one to access the soul and develop unused potentials of the human mind.<ref>A. Weil, W. Rosen. (1993), ''From Chocolate To Morphine: Everything You Need To Know About Mind-Altering Drugs''.New York, Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 93</ref><ref>Erowid. (1998, August 9). Erowid Humphry Osmond Vault. Retrieved from https://erowid.org/culture/characters/osmond_humphry/osmond_humphry.shtml</ref>
The term "psychedelic" was coined by the British psychiatrist Humphrey Osmond in 1956. It derives from the Greek words ''ψυχή'' (psyche, "soul, mind") and ''δηλείν'' (delein, "to manifest") which taken together mean "soul-manifesting," with the implication being that psychedelics can allow one to access the soul and develop unused potentials of the human mind.<ref>A. Weil, W. Rosen. (1993), ''From Chocolate To Morphine: Everything You Need To Know About Mind-Altering Drugs''.New York, Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 93</ref><ref>Erowid. (1998, August 9). Erowid Humphry Osmond Vault. Retrieved from https://erowid.org/culture/characters/osmond_humphry/osmond_humphry.shtml</ref>
Revision as of 05:47, 22 February 2019
Oversoul by Alex Grey - An example of psychedelic artwork created by the renowned visionary artist Alex Grey. This image is a representation of an experience report found in the 1901 book Cosmic Consciousness
Psychedelics (also known as serotonergic hallucinogens) are a class of psychoactive substances that produce profound alterations in perception, mood and numerous cognitive processes.[1]
While the precise mechanism is not understood, psychedelics are thought to produce their characteristic effects by binding to and activating the receptors for serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT), particularly the 5-HT2a subtype. Serotonin plays a number of critical roles all throughout the human body and is a key neurotransmitter involved in the functioning and regulation of sensory perception, behavior, mood, cognition and memory.[2]
The term "psychedelic" was coined by the British psychiatrist Humphrey Osmond in 1956. It derives from the Greek words ψυχή (psyche, "soul, mind") and δηλείν (delein, "to manifest") which taken together mean "soul-manifesting," with the implication being that psychedelics can allow one to access the soul and develop unused potentials of the human mind.[3][4]
Unlike most highly prohibited substances, psychedelics are generally considered to be physiologically safe and non-addictive by the scientific community.[1]
The use of psychedelics predates written history, and they were employed by early cultures in many sociocultural and ritual contexts.[1] In modern times, psychedelic substances are used in a range of contexts spanning from the shamanic, religious and "spiritual", or the transpersonal. They are sometimes referred to as entheogens (i.e. "generating the divine within")[5] by those who use them for these purposes, although they are also often used in purely recreationally.
The term "psychedelic" was first coined in 1956 by psychiatrist Humphry Osmond as an alternative descriptor for hallucinogenic substances in the context of psychedelic psychotherapy.[6] Seeking a name for the experience induced by LSD, Osmond contacted Aldous Huxley, a personal acquaintance and advocate for the therapeutic use of the substance. Huxley coined the term "phanerothyme," from the Greek terms for "manifest" (φανερός) and "spirit" (θύμος). In a letter to Osmond, he wrote:
To make this mundane world sublime,
Take half a gram of phanerothyme
To which Osmond responded:
To fathom Hell or soar angelic,
Just take a pinch of psychedelic[7]
It was on this term that Osmond eventually settled, because it was "clear, euphonious and uncontaminated by other associations."[8] This mongrel spelling of the word 'psychedelic' was loathed by American ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes, but championed by Timothy Leary, who thought it sounded better.[9] Due to the expanded use of the term "psychedelic" in pop culture and a perceived incorrect verbal formulation, Carl A.P. Ruck, Jeremy Bigwood, Danny Staples, Jonathan Ott, and R. Gordon Wasson proposed the term "entheogen" to describe the religious or spiritual experience produced by such substances.[10]
Method of action
The diagram above demonstrates the neural connections associated with sobriety in comparison to being under the influence of psilocybin as demonstrated through the use of MRI scans. The width of the links is proportional to their weight and the size of the nodes is proportional to their strength. Note that the proportion of heavy links between communities is much higher (and very different) in the psilocybin group, suggesting greater integration[11]This image shows how, with eyes-closed, much more of the brain contributes to the visual experience under LSD (right image) than under placebo (left image). The magnitude of this effect correlates with participants’ reports of complex, dreamlike visions.[12]Figure 1 - Activation of the prefrontal network and glutamate release by psychedelics. The figure shows a model in which hallucinogens, such as psilocin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and dimethyltryptamine (DMT), increase extracellular glutamate levels in the prefrontal cortex through stimulation of postsynaptic serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) 2A (5-HT 2A ) receptors that are located on large glutamatergic pyramidal cells in deep cortical layers (V and VI) projecting to layer V pyramidal neurons. This glutamate release leads to an activation of AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4- isoxazole propionic acid) and NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartate) receptors on cortical pyramidal neurons. in addition, hallucinogens directly activate 5-HT2A receptors located on cortical pyramidal neurons. This activation is thought to ultimately lead to increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).[13]
Psychedelics act on serotoninreceptors (also referred to as 5-HT receptors) via the way in which they act as full or partial agonists through their structural similarity to the serotonin molecule. It has a higher affinity than serotonin itself for the receptors, therefore preventing serotonin from binding to the receptors by competing with it.
While the method of action behind psychedelics is not fully understood, serotonergic psychedelics are known to show affinities for various 5-HT receptors and may be classified by their activity at different 5-HT subsites, such as 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, 5-HT2A, etc.
Many serotonergic psychedelics share very close chemical and structural similarities to serotonin itself. There is a consensus that serotonergic psychedelics produce their effects by acting as uniquely effective partial agonists at 5-HT2A receptor sites.[14]
Subjective effects
Disclaimer: The effects listed below cite the Subjective Effect Index (SEI), an open research literature based on anecdotal user reports and the personal analyses of PsychonautWikicontributors. As a result, they should be viewed with a healthy degree of skepticism.
It is also worth noting that these effects will not necessarily occur in a predictable or reliable manner, although higher doses are more liable to induce the full spectrum of effects. Likewise, adverse effects become increasingly likely with higher doses and may include addiction, severe injury, or death ☠.
The "classical psychedelics" are all classed as serotonergic in nature.[14] This means that they structurally mimic the endogenous neurotransmitter known as serotonin, the neurotransmitter that regulates higher-level brain functions such as mood, sensory perception, cognition, and memory.[2]
The diagram to the right shows the structural similarities and differences between the various classes of psychedelics and the serotonin neurotransmitter.
The three classes (phenethylamines, lysergamides and tryptamines) all contain the same chemical rings (which have been labeled).
A represents the benzene ring, which all three classes contain.
B represents the pyrrole ring in both tryptamines and lysergamides.
A and B together form the indole ring.
C (cyclohexane) and D are only contained in the lysergamides, possibly contributing to their potency.
Radar plot showing relative physical harm, social harm, and dependence of LSD and psilocybin, which can tentatively be taken to apply psychedelics as a whole.[16]
Psychedelics are considered to be non-addictive, do not cause brain damage, and tend to have an extremely low toxicity relative to dose.[1]
Most psychedelics have very few physical side effects associated with acute exposure. Various studies have shown that in reasonable doses in a sufficiently prepared context, they are very unlike to present negative physical, cognitive, psychiatric or other toxic consequences. There is no evidence that any psychedelics causes damage to any human body organ.[17]
However, they can act as a potential trigger for those with underlying psychiatric conditions, so those with a family history of mental illness are generally advised not to use these substances.
Lethal dosage
Psychedelics do not have established lethal dosages. There are no well-documented deaths attributable to the direct pharmacological action of any psychedelic, with the notable exception of the 25x-NBOMe series.
Tolerance and addiction potential
Psychedelics are not habit-forming and the desire to use them can actually decrease with use. They are generally considered to be self-regulating aspect, although cases of dependence and addiction have been recorded.[citation needed] Notably, there is virtually no withdrawal syndrome when the chronic use of these substances have ceased.[18]
Tolerance to the effects of most psychedelics is built almost immediately after ingestion and hits peak once the effects wear off. After that, it takes about 5-7 days for the tolerance to be reduced to half and 1-2 weeks to be back at baseline (in the absence of further consumption). Most psychedelics present cross-tolerance with one another, meaning that after the use of certain psychedelics all will have a reduced effect.
Notable exceptions to this include DMT and related tryptamines like DPT and MET, which are thought to produce little to no tolerance or cross-tolerance.
Another exception includes psychedelic phenethylamines like 2C-B. While the exact mechanism is not understood, generally tolerance is thought to rise immediately, but does not reach a peak unless with prolonged and repeated use. This means that the immediate tolerance does not rise as high as with lysergamides or tryptamines and can wear off faster and can be reduced to half within 1-2 days in the absence of further consumption. Mostly there will be less psychedelic and more stimulating effects.
Extremely high doses of psychedelics can also produce a tolerance which can last a significantly longer time than expected.
Dangerous interactions
Warning:Many psychoactive substances that are reasonably safe to use on their own can suddenly become dangerous and even life-threatening when combined with certain other substances. The following list provides some known dangerous interactions (although it is not guaranteed to include all of them).
Always conduct independent research (e.g. Google, DuckDuckGo, PubMed) to ensure that a combination of two or more substances is safe to consume. Some of the listed interactions have been sourced from TripSit.
Lithium - Lithium is often used as treatment for bipolar disorder. It can dangerously amplify the intensity of psychedelics and has been strongly linked with psychosis and seizures. The causes are poorly understood, but it may be due to its glutaminergic and GABAergic properties.[citation needed]
Stimulants - Stimulants affect many parts of the brain. Combined with psychedelics, stimulation can turn into uncontrollable anxiety, panic, thought loops and paranoia. This interaction may cause elevated risk of psychosis.[citation needed]
Tramadol - Tramadol lowers the seizure threshold[19] and psychedelics may act as triggers for seizures, particularly in those who are predisposed to them.[citation needed]
Responsible use
The information below describes and explains various concepts regarding the responsible use of psychedelic substances. These should be read over and carefully considered before one decides whether or not the potential benefits of experimenting with psychedelics outweighs the potential risks.
Setting
Choosing a suitable place to experience the effects of a hallucinogen is extremely important and plays a major role in determining the outcome of the experience. The ideal place for an inexperienced user is a familiar, safe, indoor environment over which they have full control and is devoid of factors that can negatively influence one's mental state. In order to prepare a proper setting for hallucinogens, it is advised to take the following steps:
Ensure that one is completely free of responsibilities for the duration of the experience, and ideally the day after. This is because even the simplest of tasks can become incredibly difficult and potentially stressful to perform while under the influence of hallucinogens. The user should be prepared to fully relax and not perform chores or everyday routines. This includes driving and operating heavy machinery.
Avoid people who are not directly participating in the experience. This includes relatives who may be sleeping in the same house and friends that are anything but extremely trustworthy, understanding, and informed about the effects of hallucinogens. The mere vicinity of unaware people can prompt anxiety and paranoia as well as prevent full immersion in the experience.
Avoid unfamiliar, loud, cluttered, and/or public environments. The user should select an environment over which they have a considerable degree of control. This can be as simple as having the ability to adjust the air conditioning settings or freely enter and exit a restroom. One should be able to sit, lie down, and walk around as they please for the full duration of the experience. The chosen setting should ideally be equipped with privacy, relaxing music, comfortable seating, and readily available food and water. Examples of such settings include a safe, comfortable room at home or a friend's house.
Avoid sources of anything that can generate "bad vibes." The user should not expose themselves to unpleasant or disturbing stimuli such as scary films or dark music. If bad vibes are encompassing the experience, they can be escaped by quickly changing the immediate environment the user is in. For example, if one is sitting down with the lights off, stand up and turn the lights on, change the music, or move to a different room in the house.
Once the user has become intimately familiar with their substance of choice, it is up to them as an individual whether they would be comfortable tripping in a less controlled environment such as out in nature, social gatherings, parties, raves, etc. However, it should be noted that tripping in these settings entails considerably more physical and legal risk.
Set (State of mind)
The user's set or state of mind in plays a major role in determining the outcome of a trip. Hallucinogens amplify one's current state of mind, mood and outlook: a positive mindset will likely become more positive and a negative one will become even more negative. As a result, hallucinogens should generally be avoided during acutely stressful or negative periods of life. Users should be fully aware of the ways in which hallucinogens, particularly psychedelics, are able to force one to face their internal problems that they may not be psychologically prepared to handle at that time.
Those with preexisting mental conditions (especially individuals with psychotic illnesses like schizophrenia) should avoid hallucinogens due to the way they can strongly amplify one's underlying mental and emotional state as well as promote delusions and hallucinations. Those who wish to take hallucinogens with such conditions should seek the advice of a qualified medical practitioner.
A common piece of advice while tripping is to "let go" and allow the effects of the substance to take charge. One should take the metaphorical passenger seat and forgo trying to control or suppress any part of the experience. It is extremely important that the user simply relaxes and take things as they come, as any resistance will only serve to amplify what is trying to be avoided.
Additionally, the user must understand that the experience of tripping is often ungraspable, meaning that one should accept being unable to understand or express the full scope of what is happening during the experience. The user should embrace the fact that their thought processes, although potentially more lucid in some ways, will be unavoidably impaired along with fine motor control, conversational skills, and situational awareness. The user should be sure to frequently remind themselves that these effects are normal and, most importantly, temporary.
Bodily state
The user's current bodily condition is just as important as one's mood and mindset when going into a trip. If one feels tired, sick or injured, these sensations will manifest as amplified versions of the same conditions which, when combined with possible body load, may easily detract from or ruin the experience.
Instead of tripping while stressed, tired, sick or injured, one should wait for a more suitable opportunity. This will drastically lower the chances of having a negative or unfulfilling experience.
When using hallucinogens, a trip sitter is strongly recommended to be present, particularly if one is inexperienced with the substance. It is the trip sitter's responsibility to assist the individual or group by maintaining a calm and grounded frame of mind. This can be accomplished by simply watching over the trippers and calmly reassuring them if they experience any anxiety or stress, while also preventing them from coming to any harm. There is an obvious correlation between the name "trip sitter" and "baby sitter": this is because trip sitting often feels like babysitting and it is a responsibility that must be taken every bit as seriously.
A good trip sitter must fulfill a number of requirements. In addition to being a generally responsible adult, they should ideally be sober and able to relate to the group members' situation from either personal experiences or researched knowledge. Trip sitters should understand that when an individual is tripping, they may not be able to communicate or interact as they usually do. Also, their balance and spatial judgment may be impaired so assistance in performing tasks such as staying hydrated or navigating through an area can greatly reduce anxiety and confusion. The trip sitter can participate in the conversation, but should also remember to give the trippers space to explore the experience without too much external influence.
Once the user becomes familiar with a substance, it becomes a personal choice as to whether or not they feel comfortable enough to trip without a sitter. It is also advised to use trip sitters when taking high doses or a dose one has never taken before. It should be remembered that having friends around while tripping is the best way to avoid potential psychological, medical, or legal consequences.
Anchors
"You are tripping on 2C-P" - This sign is an example of an anchor which can be used to keep one grounded during ego death.
In the context of hallucinogen use, an anchor is an activity or physical object which keeps the user grounded during the heavy distortion of a person's sense of time, space, memory, and sense of self. At higher dosages, this can result in extreme disorientation and confusion. Anchors are often used to counteract this and maintain one's concept of the current situation as it is within reality.
Examples of anchors include:
Familiar and uplifting music. An example of this includes our community good vibes portal. However, users are encouraged to create their own playlist that is composed of music one personally associates with being happy and relaxed.
An extremely personal and ingrained image or object.
Continuous repetition of a meaningful word or motto as a mantra.
Writing an easily readable reminder onto a large piece of paper and placing it close within one's visual field throughout the experience. Common reminders include the name of the substance along with its dosage and phrases such as "You are tripping on LSD." The same principle can be used to write reminders on one's hand or other visible body parts.
An item of clothing or an accessory that is only worn during and therefore associated with the act of tripping.
Aborting trips
Hallucinogens have the potential to become overwhelming and push the user into a paranoid or dreadful mood, particularly if they are inexperienced or in an inappropriate set and setting.
If one decides to terminate the trip, benzodiazepines and other sedatives such as some antipsychotics can be considered analogous to an "eject button" of a downhill-headed or extensively long trip. These substances tend to be very effective tools in preventing panic attacks, paranoia, and possible traumatic experiences.
However, experienced users generally advise trying to wait out difficult parts of a trip if possible. Challenging moments are often temporary and can turn out to be catalysts for the greatest learning experiences.
Vollenweider, F. X., & Kometer, M. (2010). The Neurobiology of Psychedelic Drugs: Implications for the Treatment of Mood Disorders. Nature Publishing Group, 11(9), 642–651. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2884
Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Goodwin, G. M. (2017). The Therapeutic Potential of Psychedelic Drugs: Past, Present, and Future. Neuropsychopharmacology. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2017.84
Johansen, P. Ø., & Krebs, T. S. (2015). Psychedelics not linked to mental health problems or suicidal behavior: A population study. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 29(3), 270-279. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881114568039
↑A. Weil, W. Rosen. (1993), From Chocolate To Morphine: Everything You Need To Know About Mind-Altering Drugs.New York, Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 93
↑W. Davis (1996), One River: Explorations and Discoveries in the Amazon Rain Forest. New York, Simon & Schuster, Inc. p. 120
↑R. Gordon Wasson, Albert Hofmann, and Carl A.P. Ruck, The Road to Eleusis: Unveiling the Secret of the Mysteries (North Atlantic Books, 2008), pgs. 138-139
↑Petri, G., Expert, P., Turkheimer, F., Nutt, D., Hellyer, P. J., & Vaccarino, F. (2014). Homological scaffolds of brain functional networks, 14–18. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2014.0873
↑Carhart-Harris, R. L., Muthukumaraswamy, S., Roseman, L., Kaelen, M., Droog, W., Murphy, K., … Nutt, D. J. (2016). Neural correlates of the LSD experience revealed by multimodal neuroimaging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1518377113
↑Vollenweider, F. X., & Kometer, M. (2010). The Neurobiology of Psychedelic Drugs: Implications for the Treatment of Mood Disorders. Nature Publishing Group, 11(9), 642–651. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2884
↑Nutt, D., King, L. A., Saulsbury, W., & Blakemore, C. (2007). Development of a Rational Scale to Assess the Harm of Drugs of Potential Misuse, 1047–1053. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4
↑Diaz, Jaime (1996). How Drugs Influence Behavior: A Neurobehavioral Approach. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780023287640
↑Talaie, H., Panahandeh, R., Fayaznouri, M. R., Asadi, Z., & Abdollahi, M. (2009). Dose-independent occurrence of seizure with tramadol. Journal of medical toxicology, 5(2), 63-67. doi:10.1007/BF03161089
