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Piracetam (sold under many brand names) is a nootropic drug in the racetams group, with chemical name 2-oxo-1-pyrrolidine acetamide. It shares the same 2-oxo-pyrrolidone base structure with pyroglutamic acid. Piracetam is a cyclic derivative of GABA. In the UK, piracetam is prescribed mainly for myoclonus,<ref>http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/medicines/100001864.html</ref> but is used off-label for other conditions. Piracetam was first synthesized in 1964 by scientists at the Belgian pharmaceutical company UCB led by Corneliu E. Giurgea; struck by its apparent ability to boost mental functioning in even healthy individuals and by its safety, Giurgea coined the term nootropic to describe it and other substances.
In the United States, it is not approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for any medical use and it is not permitted to be sold as a dietary supplement. However, it is still readily available and sold through online vendors. Dosages range nearly one hundred times of that of [[noopept]], making it both the earliest and least potent [[racetam]].
'''Piracetam''' ('''2-oxo-1-pyrrolidine acetamide''') is a [[psychoactive class::nootropic]] substance of the [[chemical class::racetam]] class. It is a derivative of [[GABA]].
Piracetam was first synthesized in 1964 by Corneliu E. Giurgea and other scientists at the Belgian pharmaceutical company UCB.{{citation needed}}
In the United Kingdom, piracetam is prescribed mainly for myoclonus (spasmodic jerky contraction of groups of muscles),<ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((Henderson, D. R.)) | year=2012 | title=Nootropil (piracetam) | url=http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/medicines/brain-and-nervous-system/news/a7226/nootropil-piracetam/}}</ref> but is used off-label for other conditions. In the United States, it is not approved by the Food and Drug Administration for any medical use and it is not permitted to be sold as a dietary supplement. However, it is still readily available and sold through online vendors. As a "smart drug", it is reported to enhance cognitive functions including memory, intelligence, and attention.<ref>{{Citation | title=Erowid Piracetam Vault : FAQ : Frequently Asked Questions v0.7 | url=https://www.erowid.org/smarts/piracetam/piracetam_faq.shtml}}</ref>
The standard piracetam dose for adults is between 1,200-4,800mg a day. The largest effective dose is 1,600mg, taken three times a day for a total of 4,800mg.
The active dose of piracetam is 100 times than that of [[noopept]],{{citation needed}} making it both the earliest and least potent [[racetam]]. The standard piracetam dose for adults is between 1,200-4,800mg a day. The largest effective dose is 1,600mg taken three times a day for a total of 4,800mg.
==Chemistry==
==Chemistry==
{{chemistry}}
Piracetam, or 2-oxo-1-pyrrolidine-acetamide, is a synthetic compound of the [[racetam]] family. Racetams share a [[pyrrolidine]] nucleus, a five member nitrogenous ring with a ketone bonded oxygen at R<sub>2</sub>.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Malykh, A. G.)), ((Sadaie, M. R.)) | journal=Drugs | title=Piracetam and piracetam-like drugs: from basic science to novel clinical applications to CNS disorders | volume=70 | issue=3 | pages=287–312 | date=12 February 2010 | issn=1179-1950 | doi=10.2165/11319230-000000000-00000}}</ref> This 2-pyrrolidone ring is bound to the terminal carbon of an acetamide group, an ethyl amide chain with a ketone bond (C=O) at the alpha carbon.
Piracetam (known as (2-oxo-1-pyrrolidine-acetamide) is a synthetic compound of the [[racetam]] family, and shares the characteristic 5-carbon oxopyrrolidone ring structure.<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20166767</ref> Piracetam was the first of the racetam family, and developed by UCB Pharma in Belgium,<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11812254</ref> and is also known as Nootropyl or UCB6215.<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/116278</ref>
Piracetam tends to share structural similarity to the neurotransmitter GABA, as it is a cyclical derivative; as such it retains two nitrogens in its structure with one amine bearing the two-carbon side chain that has the other nitrogen within it. The skeleton structure and computed minima via conformational analysis (PBE0/6-31G(d,p)) are depicted below; via this article.
Piracetam shares structural similarity to the neurotransmitter [[GABA]], its pyrrolidine core is the cyclic counterpart of [[GABA]] and could theoretically be converted into an acetamide chain through a hydrolysis reaction into [[GABA]].
==Pharmacology==
==Pharmacology==
Increased brain oxygen consumption has been noted mostly during periods of insufficient neuronal oxidation following Piracetam ingestion or incubation with neurons. As these observations are indicative of glucose consumption, interactions with glucose oxidation were ingestigated and found to be replicated in humans following two 6g infusions of Piracetam.<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3260597</ref>
Piracetam's mechanism of action, as with [[racetam]]s in general, is not fully understood. The drug influences neuronal and vascular functions and influences cognitive function without acting as a [[sedative]] or [[stimulant]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Winblad, B.)) | journal=CNS drug reviews | title=Piracetam: a review of pharmacological properties and clinical uses | volume=11 | issue=2 | pages=169–182 | date= 2005 | issn=1080-563X | doi=10.1111/j.1527-3458.2005.tb00268.x}}</ref> Piracetam is a positive allosteric modulator of the AMPA receptor.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Ahmed, A. H.)), ((Oswald, R. E.)) | journal=Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | title=Piracetam defines a new binding site for allosteric modulators of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid (AMPA) receptors | volume=53 | issue=5 | pages=2197–2203 | date=11 March 2010 | issn=1520-4804 | doi=10.1021/jm901905j}}</ref> It is hypothesized to act on ion channels or ion carriers, thus leading to increased neuron excitability.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Gouliaev, A. H.)), ((Senning, A.)) | journal=Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews | title=Piracetam and other structurally related nootropics | volume=19 | issue=2 | pages=180–222 | date= May 1994 | doi=10.1016/0165-0173(94)90011-6}}</ref> [[GABA]] brain metabolism and GABA receptors are not affected by piracetam.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Giurgea, C. E.)) | journal=Drug Development Research | title=The nootropic concept and its prospective implications | volume=2 | issue=5 | pages=441–446 | date= 1982 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ddr.430020505 | issn=0272-4391 | doi=10.1002/ddr.430020505}}</ref>
Interestingly, the aforementioned study divided dementia patients into those with Alzheimer's and those without and only in the Alzheimer's group (where glucose consumption is significantly perturbed) was there a statistically significant increase of 8-10% glucose consumption, suggesting a mechanism unique to cognitively impaired persons.
Among other things, it has also been found to increase blood flow and oxygen consumption in parts of the brain, but this may be a side effect of increased brain activity rather than a primary effect or mechanism of action for the drug.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Jordaan, B.)), ((Oliver, D. W.)), ((Dormehl, I. C.)), ((Hugo, N.)) | journal=Arzneimittel-Forschung | title=Cerebral blood flow effects of piracetam, pentifylline, and nicotinic acid in the baboon model compared with the known effect of acetazolamide | volume=46 | issue=9 | pages=844–847 | date= September 1996 | issn=0004-4172}}</ref> Piracetam also improves the function of the neurotransmitter [[acetylcholine]] via muscarinic cholinergic (ACh) receptors, which are implicated in memory processes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Winnicka, K.)), ((Tomasiak, M.)), ((Bielawska, A.)) | journal=Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica | title=Piracetam--an old drug with novel properties? | volume=62 | issue=5 | pages=405–409 | date= October 2005 | issn=0001-6837}}</ref>
Piracetam (and Leviracetam) have been found to antagonize an inhibition of glucose uptake into erythrocytes induced by hypnotic drugs (including Melatonin)<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15148255</ref> which is likely related to membrane fluidity.<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16284628</ref> A possible connection between membrane fluidity and glucose consumption exists, although plausible mechanisms also exist for glucose consumption being enhanced downstream of modulating ion currents and action potentials.
Although it is not fully understood how, it's these multiple complex mechanisms of action which result in piracetams [[nootropic]] effects.
==Subjective effects==
==Subjective effects==
The effects listed below are based upon the [[subjective effects index]] and personal experiences of [[PsychonautWiki]] [[Special:TopUsers|contributors]]. The listed effects will rarely (if ever) occur all at once, but heavier dosages will increase the chances and are more likely to induce a full range of effects.
{{Preamble/SubjectiveEffects}}
In comparison to the effects of other nootropics such as [[noopept]], this compound can be described as focusing primarily on physical stimulation over that of cognitive stimulation.
{{effects/base
|{{effects/physical|
*'''[[Effect::Stimulation]]''' - The stimulation which piracetam presents can be considered as primarily subtle, comparable to that of [[caffeine]].
*'''[[Effect::Headaches]]''' - Some users suggest that this effect may be alleviated with a choline source such as [[choline bitartrate]], [[alpha-GPC]] or [[citicoline]].
*'''[[Effect::Muscle spasms]]'''
In comparison to the effects of other [[racetam]] nootropics such as [[noopept]], this compound can be described as focusing primarily on physical stimulation over that of cognitive stimulation.
}}
====Sensory effects====
{{effects/sensory|
*'''[[Effect::Acuity enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Acuity enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Auditory enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Colour enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Colour enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Auditory enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Mindfulness]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Mindfulness]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Tactile enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Tactile enhancement]]'''
====Physical effects====
}}
*'''[[Effect::Stimulation]]''' - The stimulation which Piracetam presents can be considered as primarily subtle, comparable to that of [[caffeine]].
|{{effects/cognitive|
*'''[[Effect::Headaches]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Muscle spasms]]'''
====Cognitive effect====
*'''[[Effect::Wakefulness]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Anxiety suppression]]''' or '''[[Effect::Anxiety]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Anxiety suppression]]''' or '''[[Effect::Anxiety]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Thought connectivity]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Dream potentiation]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Focus enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Focus enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Irritability]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Memory enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Motivation enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Motivation enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Memory enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Thought connectivity]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Dream potentiation]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Wakefulness]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Irritability]]'''
}}
}}
===Experience reports===
There are currently no anecdotal reports which describe the effects of this compound within our [[experience index]]. Additional experience reports can be found here:
Adverse effects, although rare and of short duration are limited to anxiety, insomnia, drowsiness and agitation. It may be safe for up to 18 months in humans at doses of 3.2g daily with one year-long study in ambulatory patients with Alzheimer's using 8g daily reporting no side effects.<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11346373</ref> However, a possibility for adverse drug-drug interactions persists for Piracetam due to it interacting with blood in an anti-clotting manner (and such, caution should be taken when pairing Piracetam with pharmaceutical blood thinning agents such as Warfarin or potent nutraceutical options).
Adverse effects, although rare and of short duration are limited to [[anxiety]], [[wakefulness|insomnia]], [[sedation|drowsiness]], [[headaches]] and [[irritability|agitation]]. It may be safe for up to 18 months in humans at doses of 3.2g daily with one year-long study in ambulatory patients with Alzheimer's using 8g daily reporting no side effects.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Fedi, M.)), ((Reutens, D.)), ((Dubeau, F.)), ((Andermann, E.)), ((D’Agostino, D.)), ((Andermann, F.)) | journal=Archives of Neurology | title=Long-term efficacy and safety of piracetam in the treatment of progressive myoclonus epilepsy | volume=58 | issue=5 | pages=781–786 | date= May 2001 | issn=0003-9942 | doi=10.1001/archneur.58.5.781}}</ref> However, a possibility for adverse drug-drug interactions persists for piracetam due to it interacting with blood in an anti-clotting manner. Therefore, caution should be taken when pairing piracetam with pharmaceutical blood thinning agents such as Warfarin or potent nutraceutical options and individuals prone to brain hemorrhaging are discouraged from using piracetam.
Patients with renal insufficiency should also not use piracetam.
No fatal overdoses associated with piracetam use have been reported as of 2016. In animal models (rodents, dogs, and marmoset), an [[LD50|LD<sub>50</sub>]] failed to be established at the dosage of 8-10g/kg.
No fatal overdoses associated with Piracetam use have been reported as of 2016. In animal models (rodents, dogs, and marmoset), an LD50 failed to be established at the dosage of 8-10g/kg.
Regardless, it is strongly recommended that one use [[responsible drug use|harm reduction practices]] when using this substance.
Regardless, it is strongly recommended that one use [[responsible drug use|harm reduction practices]] when using this drug.
===Lethal dosage===
===Lethal dosage===
The median lethal dosage (LD50) of Piracetam has not been officially published as it has low abuse potential, but the typical dosage is two grams once to three times a day. Anecdotal evidence from people within the community who have tried Piracetam suggests that there are no negative health effects attributed to simply trying the drug by itself at low to moderate doses and using it very sparingly (but, as per most substances, nothing can be completely guaranteed). [https://www.google.com/ Independent research] should always be done to ensure that a combination of two or more substances is safe before consumption.
The median lethal dosage (LD50) of piracetam has not been officially published as it has low abuse potential, but the typical dosage is two grams once to three times a day.
It is strongly recommended that one use [[responsible drug use|harm reduction practices]] when using this drug.
===Tolerance and addiction potential===
===Dependence and abuse potential===
The chronic use of Piracetam can be considered as [[Addiction potential::not addictive with a low potential for abuse]]. It does not seem to be capable of causing psychological dependence among certain users.
The chronic use of piracetam can be considered as [[Addiction potential::not addictive with a low potential for abuse]]. It does not seem to be capable of causing psychological dependence among certain users.
Tolerance to many of the effects of piracetam [[Time to full tolerance::develops with prolonged and repeated use]]. This results in users having to administer increasingly large doses to achieve the same effects. After that, it takes about [[Time to half tolerance::3 - 7 days]] for the tolerance to be reduced to half and [[Time to zero tolerance::1 - 2 weeks]] to be back at baseline (in the absence of further consumption). Piracetam may presents cross-tolerance with [[Cross-tolerance::all [[racetam]] [[nootropic]]s]], meaning that after the consumption of piracetam certain [[nootropics]] such as [[aniracetam]] and [[pramiracetam]] may have a reduced effect.
Tolerance to many of the effects of Piracetam [[Time to full tolerance::develops with prolonged and repeated use]]. This results in users having to administer increasingly large doses to achieve the same effects. After that, it takes about [[Time to half tolerance::3 - 7 days]] for the tolerance to be reduced to half and [[Time to zero tolerance::1 - 2 weeks]] to be back at baseline (in the absence of further consumption). Piracetam may presents cross-tolerance with [[Cross-tolerance::all [[racetam]] [[nootropic]]s]], meaning that after the consumption of piracetam certain [[nootropics]]s such as [[noopept]] and [[pramiracetam]] may have a reduced effect.
===Dangerous interactions===
Piracetam showed nonselective MAO activity in a rat study.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Stancheva, S. L.)), ((Alova, L. G.)) | journal=Farmakologiia I Toksikologiia | title=[Effect of centrophenoxine, piracetam and aniracetam on the monoamine oxidase activity in different brain structures of rats] | volume=51 | issue=3 | pages=16–18 | date= June 1988 | issn=0014-8318}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Trabucchi, M.)), ((Govoni, S.)), ((Battaini, F.)) | journal=Il Farmaco; Edizione Scientifica | title=Changes in the interaction between CNS cholinergic and dopaminergic neurons induced by L-alpha-glycerylphosphorylcholine, a cholinomimetic drug | volume=41 | issue=4 | pages=325–334 | date= April 1986 | issn=0430-0920}}</ref> Piracetam and [[MAOIs]] are a potentially dangerous combination. It is likely that MAOIs could increase the effects of piracetam unpredictably. Taking this chemical while on prescription MAOIs is strongly discouraged.
==Legal issues==
==Legal status==
{{legalStub}}
{{legalStub}}
Piracetam, being a member of the [[racetam]] family, currently is legally available to buy and sell in most countries, but may still vary by region.
Piracetam, being a member of the [[racetam]] family, currently is legally available to buy and sell in most countries, but may still vary by region.
*'''Czech Republic:''' Piracetam is not regulated and can be bought in a pharmacy.
*'''Germany:''' Piracetam is a prescription medicine, according to Anlage 1 AMVV.<ref>{{Citation | title=Anlage 1 AMVV - Einzelnorm | url=https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/amvv/anlage_1.html}}</ref>
*'''Switzerland:''' Piracetam is listed as a "Abgabekategorie B" pharmaceutical, which requires a prescription.{{citation needed}}
*'''United Kingdom:''' Piracetam and other racetams are prescription only drugs; however, there is no penalty for possession or importing them.
*'''New Zealand:''' Piracetam is considered a prescription drug, and as such will be seized by the Ministry of Health. It is not able to be imported without a signed note from a doctor.
WARNING: Always start with lower doses due to differences between individual body weight, tolerance, metabolism, and personal sensitivity. See responsible use section.
DISCLAIMER: PW's dosage information is gathered from users and resources for educational purposes only. It is not a recommendation and should be verified with other sources for accuracy.
Piracetam (2-oxo-1-pyrrolidine acetamide) is a nootropic substance of the racetam class. It is a derivative of GABA.
Piracetam was first synthesized in 1964 by Corneliu E. Giurgea and other scientists at the Belgian pharmaceutical company UCB.[citation needed]
In the United Kingdom, piracetam is prescribed mainly for myoclonus (spasmodic jerky contraction of groups of muscles),[1] but is used off-label for other conditions. In the United States, it is not approved by the Food and Drug Administration for any medical use and it is not permitted to be sold as a dietary supplement. However, it is still readily available and sold through online vendors. As a "smart drug", it is reported to enhance cognitive functions including memory, intelligence, and attention.[2]
The active dose of piracetam is 100 times than that of noopept,[citation needed] making it both the earliest and least potent racetam. The standard piracetam dose for adults is between 1,200-4,800mg a day. The largest effective dose is 1,600mg taken three times a day for a total of 4,800mg.
Piracetam, or 2-oxo-1-pyrrolidine-acetamide, is a synthetic compound of the racetam family. Racetams share a pyrrolidine nucleus, a five member nitrogenous ring with a ketone bonded oxygen at R2.[3] This 2-pyrrolidone ring is bound to the terminal carbon of an acetamide group, an ethyl amide chain with a ketone bond (C=O) at the alpha carbon.
Piracetam shares structural similarity to the neurotransmitter GABA, its pyrrolidine core is the cyclic counterpart of GABA and could theoretically be converted into an acetamide chain through a hydrolysis reaction into GABA.
Pharmacology
Piracetam's mechanism of action, as with racetams in general, is not fully understood. The drug influences neuronal and vascular functions and influences cognitive function without acting as a sedative or stimulant.[4] Piracetam is a positive allosteric modulator of the AMPA receptor.[5] It is hypothesized to act on ion channels or ion carriers, thus leading to increased neuron excitability.[6]GABA brain metabolism and GABA receptors are not affected by piracetam.[7]
Among other things, it has also been found to increase blood flow and oxygen consumption in parts of the brain, but this may be a side effect of increased brain activity rather than a primary effect or mechanism of action for the drug.[8] Piracetam also improves the function of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine via muscarinic cholinergic (ACh) receptors, which are implicated in memory processes.[9]
Although it is not fully understood how, it's these multiple complex mechanisms of action which result in piracetams nootropic effects.
Subjective effects
Disclaimer: The effects listed below cite the Subjective Effect Index (SEI), an open research literature based on anecdotal user reports and the personal analyses of PsychonautWikicontributors. As a result, they should be viewed with a healthy degree of skepticism.
It is also worth noting that these effects will not necessarily occur in a predictable or reliable manner, although higher doses are more liable to induce the full spectrum of effects. Likewise, adverse effects become increasingly likely with higher doses and may include addiction, severe injury, or death ☠.
In comparison to the effects of other nootropics such as noopept, this compound can be described as focusing primarily on physical stimulation over that of cognitive stimulation.
Physical effects
Stimulation - The stimulation which piracetam presents can be considered as primarily subtle, comparable to that of caffeine.
There are currently no anecdotal reports which describe the effects of this compound within our experience index. Additional experience reports can be found here:
Adverse effects, although rare and of short duration are limited to anxiety, insomnia, drowsiness, headaches and agitation. It may be safe for up to 18 months in humans at doses of 3.2g daily with one year-long study in ambulatory patients with Alzheimer's using 8g daily reporting no side effects.[10] However, a possibility for adverse drug-drug interactions persists for piracetam due to it interacting with blood in an anti-clotting manner. Therefore, caution should be taken when pairing piracetam with pharmaceutical blood thinning agents such as Warfarin or potent nutraceutical options and individuals prone to brain hemorrhaging are discouraged from using piracetam.
Patients with renal insufficiency should also not use piracetam.
No fatal overdoses associated with piracetam use have been reported as of 2016. In animal models (rodents, dogs, and marmoset), an LD50 failed to be established at the dosage of 8-10g/kg.
Regardless, it is strongly recommended that one use harm reduction practices when using this substance.
Lethal dosage
The median lethal dosage (LD50) of piracetam has not been officially published as it has low abuse potential, but the typical dosage is two grams once to three times a day.
Dependence and abuse potential
The chronic use of piracetam can be considered as not addictive with a low potential for abuse. It does not seem to be capable of causing psychological dependence among certain users.
Tolerance to many of the effects of piracetam develops with prolonged and repeated use. This results in users having to administer increasingly large doses to achieve the same effects. After that, it takes about 3 - 7 days for the tolerance to be reduced to half and 1 - 2 weeks to be back at baseline (in the absence of further consumption). Piracetam may presents cross-tolerance with [[Cross-tolerance::all racetamnootropics]], meaning that after the consumption of piracetam certain nootropics such as aniracetam and pramiracetam may have a reduced effect.
Dangerous interactions
Piracetam showed nonselective MAO activity in a rat study.[11][12] Piracetam and MAOIs are a potentially dangerous combination. It is likely that MAOIs could increase the effects of piracetam unpredictably. Taking this chemical while on prescription MAOIs is strongly discouraged.
As such, it may contain incomplete or wrong information. You can help by expanding it.
Piracetam, being a member of the racetam family, currently is legally available to buy and sell in most countries, but may still vary by region.
Czech Republic: Piracetam is not regulated and can be bought in a pharmacy.
Germany: Piracetam is a prescription medicine, according to Anlage 1 AMVV.[13]
Switzerland: Piracetam is listed as a "Abgabekategorie B" pharmaceutical, which requires a prescription.[citation needed]
United Kingdom: Piracetam and other racetams are prescription only drugs; however, there is no penalty for possession or importing them.
New Zealand: Piracetam is considered a prescription drug, and as such will be seized by the Ministry of Health. It is not able to be imported without a signed note from a doctor.
↑Malykh, A. G., Sadaie, M. R. (12 February 2010). "Piracetam and piracetam-like drugs: from basic science to novel clinical applications to CNS disorders". Drugs. 70 (3): 287–312. doi:10.2165/11319230-000000000-00000. ISSN1179-1950.
↑Ahmed, A. H., Oswald, R. E. (11 March 2010). "Piracetam defines a new binding site for allosteric modulators of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid (AMPA) receptors". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 53 (5): 2197–2203. doi:10.1021/jm901905j. ISSN1520-4804.
↑Gouliaev, A. H., Senning, A. (May 1994). "Piracetam and other structurally related nootropics". Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews. 19 (2): 180–222. doi:10.1016/0165-0173(94)90011-6.
↑Jordaan, B., Oliver, D. W., Dormehl, I. C., Hugo, N. (September 1996). "Cerebral blood flow effects of piracetam, pentifylline, and nicotinic acid in the baboon model compared with the known effect of acetazolamide". Arzneimittel-Forschung. 46 (9): 844–847. ISSN0004-4172.
↑Winnicka, K., Tomasiak, M., Bielawska, A. (October 2005). "Piracetam--an old drug with novel properties?". Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica. 62 (5): 405–409. ISSN0001-6837.
↑Fedi, M., Reutens, D., Dubeau, F., Andermann, E., D’Agostino, D., Andermann, F. (May 2001). "Long-term efficacy and safety of piracetam in the treatment of progressive myoclonus epilepsy". Archives of Neurology. 58 (5): 781–786. doi:10.1001/archneur.58.5.781. ISSN0003-9942.
↑Stancheva, S. L., Alova, L. G. (June 1988). "[Effect of centrophenoxine, piracetam and aniracetam on the monoamine oxidase activity in different brain structures of rats]". Farmakologiia I Toksikologiia. 51 (3): 16–18. ISSN0014-8318.
↑Trabucchi, M., Govoni, S., Battaini, F. (April 1986). "Changes in the interaction between CNS cholinergic and dopaminergic neurons induced by L-alpha-glycerylphosphorylcholine, a cholinomimetic drug". Il Farmaco; Edizione Scientifica. 41 (4): 325–334. ISSN0430-0920.
