This is an unofficial archive of PsychonautWiki as of 2025-08-11T15:14:44Z. Content on this page may be outdated, incomplete, or inaccurate. Please refer to the original page for the most up-to-date information.
Piracetam was first synthesized in 1964 by Corneliu E. Giurgea and other scientists at the Belgian pharmaceutical company UCB.{{citation needed}}
Piracetam was first synthesized in 1964 by Corneliu E. Giurgea and other scientists at the Belgian pharmaceutical company UCB.{{citation needed}}
In the United Kingdom, piracetam is prescribed mainly for myoclonus (spasmodic jerky contraction of groups of muscles),<ref>Nootropil (piracetam) - Net Doctor | http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/medicines/100001864.html</ref> but is used off-label for other conditions. In the United States, it is not approved by the Food and Drug Administration for any medical use and it is not permitted to be sold as a dietary supplement. However, it is still readily available and sold through online vendors. As a "smart drug", it is reported to enhance cognitive functions including memory, intelligence, and attention.<ref>Piracetam FAQ - Fooling the Bladder Cops by Christ Schoon (maintained by Erowid) | https://www.erowid.org/smarts/piracetam/piracetam_faq.shtml</ref>
In the United Kingdom, piracetam is prescribed mainly for myoclonus (spasmodic jerky contraction of groups of muscles),<ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((Henderson, D. R.)) | year=2012 | title=Nootropil (piracetam) | url=http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/medicines/brain-and-nervous-system/news/a7226/nootropil-piracetam/}}</ref> but is used off-label for other conditions. In the United States, it is not approved by the Food and Drug Administration for any medical use and it is not permitted to be sold as a dietary supplement. However, it is still readily available and sold through online vendors. As a "smart drug", it is reported to enhance cognitive functions including memory, intelligence, and attention.<ref>{{Citation | title=Erowid Piracetam Vault : FAQ : Frequently Asked Questions v0.7 | url=https://www.erowid.org/smarts/piracetam/piracetam_faq.shtml}}</ref>
The active dose of piracetam is 100 times than that of [[noopept]],{{citation needed}} making it both the earliest and least potent [[racetam]]. The standard piracetam dose for adults is between 1,200-4,800mg a day. The largest effective dose is 1,600mg taken three times a day for a total of 4,800mg.
The active dose of piracetam is 100 times than that of [[noopept]],{{citation needed}} making it both the earliest and least potent [[racetam]]. The standard piracetam dose for adults is between 1,200-4,800mg a day. The largest effective dose is 1,600mg taken three times a day for a total of 4,800mg.
==Chemistry==
==Chemistry==
Piracetam, or 2-oxo-1-pyrrolidine-acetamide, is a synthetic compound of the [[racetam]] family. Racetams share a pyrrolidine nucleus, a five member nitrogenous ring with a ketone bonded oxygen at R<sub>2</sub>.<ref>Piracetam and piracetam-like drugs: from basic science to novel clinical applications to CNS disorders. | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20166767</ref> This 2-pyrrolidone ring is bound to the terminal carbon of an acetamide group, an ethyl amide chain with a ketone bond (C=O) at the alpha carbon.
Piracetam, or 2-oxo-1-pyrrolidine-acetamide, is a synthetic compound of the [[racetam]] family. Racetams share a [[pyrrolidine]] nucleus, a five member nitrogenous ring with a ketone bonded oxygen at R<sub>2</sub>.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Malykh, A. G.)), ((Sadaie, M. R.)) | journal=Drugs | title=Piracetam and piracetam-like drugs: from basic science to novel clinical applications to CNS disorders | volume=70 | issue=3 | pages=287–312 | date=12 February 2010 | issn=1179-1950 | doi=10.2165/11319230-000000000-00000}}</ref> This 2-pyrrolidone ring is bound to the terminal carbon of an acetamide group, an ethyl amide chain with a ketone bond (C=O) at the alpha carbon.
Piracetam shares structural similarity to the neurotransmitter [[GABA]], its pyrrolidine core is the cyclic counterpart of [[GABA]] and could theoretically be converted into an acetamide chain through a hydrolysis reaction into [[GABA]].
Piracetam shares structural similarity to the neurotransmitter [[GABA]], its pyrrolidine core is the cyclic counterpart of [[GABA]] and could theoretically be converted into an acetamide chain through a hydrolysis reaction into [[GABA]].
==Pharmacology==
==Pharmacology==
Piracetam's mechanism of action, as with [[racetam]]s in general, is not fully understood. The drug influences neuronal and vascular functions and influences cognitive function without acting as a [[sedative]] or [[stimulant]].<ref>Piracetam: a review of pharmacological properties and clinical uses (NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16007238</ref> Piracetam is a positive allosteric modulator of the AMPA receptor.<ref>Piracetam defines a new binding site for allosteric modulators of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid (AMPA) receptors (NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20163115</ref> It is hypothesized to act on ion channels or ion carriers, thus leading to increased neuron excitability.<ref>Piracetam and other structurally related nootropics (NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8061686</ref> [[GABA]] brain metabolism and GABA receptors are not affected by piracetam.<ref>The nootropic concept and its prospective implications | http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ddr.430020505/abstract;jsessionid=B9BF0E3214F13C8DD3692A776A0A5B78.f02t01</ref>
Piracetam's mechanism of action, as with [[racetam]]s in general, is not fully understood. The drug influences neuronal and vascular functions and influences cognitive function without acting as a [[sedative]] or [[stimulant]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Winblad, B.)) | journal=CNS drug reviews | title=Piracetam: a review of pharmacological properties and clinical uses | volume=11 | issue=2 | pages=169–182 | date= 2005 | issn=1080-563X | doi=10.1111/j.1527-3458.2005.tb00268.x}}</ref> Piracetam is a positive allosteric modulator of the AMPA receptor.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Ahmed, A. H.)), ((Oswald, R. E.)) | journal=Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | title=Piracetam defines a new binding site for allosteric modulators of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid (AMPA) receptors | volume=53 | issue=5 | pages=2197–2203 | date=11 March 2010 | issn=1520-4804 | doi=10.1021/jm901905j}}</ref> It is hypothesized to act on ion channels or ion carriers, thus leading to increased neuron excitability.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Gouliaev, A. H.)), ((Senning, A.)) | journal=Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews | title=Piracetam and other structurally related nootropics | volume=19 | issue=2 | pages=180–222 | date= May 1994 | doi=10.1016/0165-0173(94)90011-6}}</ref> [[GABA]] brain metabolism and GABA receptors are not affected by piracetam.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Giurgea, C. E.)) | journal=Drug Development Research | title=The nootropic concept and its prospective implications | volume=2 | issue=5 | pages=441–446 | date= 1982 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ddr.430020505 | issn=0272-4391 | doi=10.1002/ddr.430020505}}</ref>
Among other things, it has also been found to increase blood flow and oxygen consumption in parts of the brain, but this may be a side effect of increased brain activity rather than a primary effect or mechanism of action for the drug.<ref>Cerebral blood flow effects of piracetam, pentifylline, and nicotinic acid in the baboon model compared with the known effect of acetazolamide (NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8876930</ref> Piracetam also improves the function of the neurotransmitter [[acetylcholine]] via muscarinic cholinergic (ACh) receptors, which are implicated in memory processes.<ref>Piracetam--an old drug with novel properties? (NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16459490</ref>
Among other things, it has also been found to increase blood flow and oxygen consumption in parts of the brain, but this may be a side effect of increased brain activity rather than a primary effect or mechanism of action for the drug.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Jordaan, B.)), ((Oliver, D. W.)), ((Dormehl, I. C.)), ((Hugo, N.)) | journal=Arzneimittel-Forschung | title=Cerebral blood flow effects of piracetam, pentifylline, and nicotinic acid in the baboon model compared with the known effect of acetazolamide | volume=46 | issue=9 | pages=844–847 | date= September 1996 | issn=0004-4172}}</ref> Piracetam also improves the function of the neurotransmitter [[acetylcholine]] via muscarinic cholinergic (ACh) receptors, which are implicated in memory processes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Winnicka, K.)), ((Tomasiak, M.)), ((Bielawska, A.)) | journal=Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica | title=Piracetam--an old drug with novel properties? | volume=62 | issue=5 | pages=405–409 | date= October 2005 | issn=0001-6837}}</ref>
Although it is not fully understood how, it's these multiple complex mechanisms of action which result in piracetams [[nootropic]] effects.
Although it is not fully understood how, it's these multiple complex mechanisms of action which result in piracetams [[nootropic]] effects.
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{{Preamble/SubjectiveEffects}}
{{Preamble/SubjectiveEffects}}
In comparison to the effects of other [[racetam]] nootropics such as [[noopept]], this compound can be described as focusing primarily on physical stimulation over that of cognitive stimulation.
In comparison to the effects of other nootropics such as [[noopept]], this compound can be described as focusing primarily on physical stimulation over that of cognitive stimulation.
{{effects/base
{{effects/base
|{{effects/physical|
|{{effects/physical|
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===Experience reports===
===Experience reports===
There are currently no anecdotal reports which describe the effects of this compound within our [[experience index]]. Additional experience reports can be found here:
There are currently no anecdotal reports which describe the effects of this compound within our [[experience index]]. Additional experience reports can be found here:
Adverse effects, although rare and of short duration are limited to [[anxiety]], [[wakefulness|insomnia]], [[sedation|drowsiness]], [[headaches]] and [[irritability|agitation]]. It may be safe for up to 18 months in humans at doses of 3.2g daily with one year-long study in ambulatory patients with Alzheimer's using 8g daily reporting no side effects.<ref>Long-term efficacy and safety of piracetam in the treatment of progressive myoclonus epilepsy. | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11346373</ref> However, a possibility for adverse drug-drug interactions persists for piracetam due to it interacting with blood in an anti-clotting manner (and such, caution should be taken when pairing piracetam with pharmaceutical blood thinning agents such as Warfarin or potent nutraceutical options).
Adverse effects, although rare and of short duration are limited to [[anxiety]], [[wakefulness|insomnia]], [[sedation|drowsiness]], [[headaches]] and [[irritability|agitation]]. It may be safe for up to 18 months in humans at doses of 3.2g daily with one year-long study in ambulatory patients with Alzheimer's using 8g daily reporting no side effects.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Fedi, M.)), ((Reutens, D.)), ((Dubeau, F.)), ((Andermann, E.)), ((D’Agostino, D.)), ((Andermann, F.)) | journal=Archives of Neurology | title=Long-term efficacy and safety of piracetam in the treatment of progressive myoclonus epilepsy | volume=58 | issue=5 | pages=781–786 | date= May 2001 | issn=0003-9942 | doi=10.1001/archneur.58.5.781}}</ref> However, a possibility for adverse drug-drug interactions persists for piracetam due to it interacting with blood in an anti-clotting manner. Therefore, caution should be taken when pairing piracetam with pharmaceutical blood thinning agents such as Warfarin or potent nutraceutical options and individuals prone to brain hemorrhaging are discouraged from using piracetam.
Patients with renal insufficiency should also not use piracetam.
No fatal overdoses associated with piracetam use have been reported as of 2016. In animal models (rodents, dogs, and marmoset), an [[LD50|LD<sub>50</sub>]] failed to be established at the dosage of 8-10g/kg.
No fatal overdoses associated with piracetam use have been reported as of 2016. In animal models (rodents, dogs, and marmoset), an [[LD50|LD<sub>50</sub>]] failed to be established at the dosage of 8-10g/kg.
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The chronic use of piracetam can be considered as [[Addiction potential::not addictive with a low potential for abuse]]. It does not seem to be capable of causing psychological dependence among certain users.
The chronic use of piracetam can be considered as [[Addiction potential::not addictive with a low potential for abuse]]. It does not seem to be capable of causing psychological dependence among certain users.
Tolerance to many of the effects of piracetam [[Time to full tolerance::develops with prolonged and repeated use]]. This results in users having to administer increasingly large doses to achieve the same effects. After that, it takes about [[Time to half tolerance::3 - 7 days]] for the tolerance to be reduced to half and [[Time to zero tolerance::1 - 2 weeks]] to be back at baseline (in the absence of further consumption). Piracetam may presents cross-tolerance with [[Cross-tolerance::all [[racetam]] [[nootropic]]s]], meaning that after the consumption of piracetam certain [[nootropics]]s such as [[noopept]] and [[pramiracetam]] may have a reduced effect.
Tolerance to many of the effects of piracetam [[Time to full tolerance::develops with prolonged and repeated use]]. This results in users having to administer increasingly large doses to achieve the same effects. After that, it takes about [[Time to half tolerance::3 - 7 days]] for the tolerance to be reduced to half and [[Time to zero tolerance::1 - 2 weeks]] to be back at baseline (in the absence of further consumption). Piracetam may presents cross-tolerance with [[Cross-tolerance::all [[racetam]] [[nootropic]]s]], meaning that after the consumption of piracetam certain [[nootropics]] such as [[aniracetam]] and [[pramiracetam]] may have a reduced effect.
===Dangerous interactions===
===Dangerous interactions===
Piracetam showed nonselective MAO activity in a rat study.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3137089</ref><ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3709792</ref> Piracetam and [[MAOIs]] are a potentially dangerous combination. It is likely that MAOIs could increase the effects of piracetam unpredictably. Taking this chemical while on prescription MAOIs is strongly discouraged.
Piracetam showed nonselective MAO activity in a rat study.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Stancheva, S. L.)), ((Alova, L. G.)) | journal=Farmakologiia I Toksikologiia | title=[Effect of centrophenoxine, piracetam and aniracetam on the monoamine oxidase activity in different brain structures of rats] | volume=51 | issue=3 | pages=16–18 | date= June 1988 | issn=0014-8318}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Trabucchi, M.)), ((Govoni, S.)), ((Battaini, F.)) | journal=Il Farmaco; Edizione Scientifica | title=Changes in the interaction between CNS cholinergic and dopaminergic neurons induced by L-alpha-glycerylphosphorylcholine, a cholinomimetic drug | volume=41 | issue=4 | pages=325–334 | date= April 1986 | issn=0430-0920}}</ref> Piracetam and [[MAOIs]] are a potentially dangerous combination. It is likely that MAOIs could increase the effects of piracetam unpredictably. Taking this chemical while on prescription MAOIs is strongly discouraged.
==Legal status==
==Legal status==
{{legalStub}}
{{legalStub}}
Piracetam, being a member of the [[racetam]] family, currently is legally available to buy and sell in most countries, but may still vary by region.
Piracetam, being a member of the [[racetam]] family, currently is legally available to buy and sell in most countries, but may still vary by region.
*'''Czech Republic:''' Piracetam is not regulated and can be bought in a pharmacy.
*'''Germany:''' Piracetam is a prescription medicine, according to Anlage 1 AMVV.<ref>{{Citation | title=Anlage 1 AMVV - Einzelnorm | url=https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/amvv/anlage_1.html}}</ref>
*'''Switzerland:''' Piracetam is listed as a "Abgabekategorie B" pharmaceutical, which requires a prescription.{{citation needed}}
*'''United Kingdom:''' Piracetam and other racetams are prescription only drugs; however, there is no penalty for possession or importing them.
*'''United Kingdom:''' Piracetam and other racetams are prescription only drugs; however, there is no penalty for possession or importing them.
*'''New Zealand:''' Piracetam is considered a prescription drug, and as such will be seized by the Ministry of Health. It is not able to be imported without a signed note from a doctor.
*'''New Zealand:''' Piracetam is considered a prescription drug, and as such will be seized by the Ministry of Health. It is not able to be imported without a signed note from a doctor.
WARNING: Always start with lower doses due to differences between individual body weight, tolerance, metabolism, and personal sensitivity. See responsible use section.
DISCLAIMER: PW's dosage information is gathered from users and resources for educational purposes only. It is not a recommendation and should be verified with other sources for accuracy.
Piracetam (2-oxo-1-pyrrolidine acetamide) is a nootropic substance of the racetam class. It is a derivative of GABA.
Piracetam was first synthesized in 1964 by Corneliu E. Giurgea and other scientists at the Belgian pharmaceutical company UCB.[citation needed]
In the United Kingdom, piracetam is prescribed mainly for myoclonus (spasmodic jerky contraction of groups of muscles),[1] but is used off-label for other conditions. In the United States, it is not approved by the Food and Drug Administration for any medical use and it is not permitted to be sold as a dietary supplement. However, it is still readily available and sold through online vendors. As a "smart drug", it is reported to enhance cognitive functions including memory, intelligence, and attention.[2]
The active dose of piracetam is 100 times than that of noopept,[citation needed] making it both the earliest and least potent racetam. The standard piracetam dose for adults is between 1,200-4,800mg a day. The largest effective dose is 1,600mg taken three times a day for a total of 4,800mg.
Piracetam, or 2-oxo-1-pyrrolidine-acetamide, is a synthetic compound of the racetam family. Racetams share a pyrrolidine nucleus, a five member nitrogenous ring with a ketone bonded oxygen at R2.[3] This 2-pyrrolidone ring is bound to the terminal carbon of an acetamide group, an ethyl amide chain with a ketone bond (C=O) at the alpha carbon.
Piracetam shares structural similarity to the neurotransmitter GABA, its pyrrolidine core is the cyclic counterpart of GABA and could theoretically be converted into an acetamide chain through a hydrolysis reaction into GABA.
Pharmacology
Piracetam's mechanism of action, as with racetams in general, is not fully understood. The drug influences neuronal and vascular functions and influences cognitive function without acting as a sedative or stimulant.[4] Piracetam is a positive allosteric modulator of the AMPA receptor.[5] It is hypothesized to act on ion channels or ion carriers, thus leading to increased neuron excitability.[6]GABA brain metabolism and GABA receptors are not affected by piracetam.[7]
Among other things, it has also been found to increase blood flow and oxygen consumption in parts of the brain, but this may be a side effect of increased brain activity rather than a primary effect or mechanism of action for the drug.[8] Piracetam also improves the function of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine via muscarinic cholinergic (ACh) receptors, which are implicated in memory processes.[9]
Although it is not fully understood how, it's these multiple complex mechanisms of action which result in piracetams nootropic effects.
Subjective effects
Disclaimer: The effects listed below cite the Subjective Effect Index (SEI), an open research literature based on anecdotal user reports and the personal analyses of PsychonautWikicontributors. As a result, they should be viewed with a healthy degree of skepticism.
It is also worth noting that these effects will not necessarily occur in a predictable or reliable manner, although higher doses are more liable to induce the full spectrum of effects. Likewise, adverse effects become increasingly likely with higher doses and may include addiction, severe injury, or death ☠.
In comparison to the effects of other nootropics such as noopept, this compound can be described as focusing primarily on physical stimulation over that of cognitive stimulation.
Physical effects
Stimulation - The stimulation which piracetam presents can be considered as primarily subtle, comparable to that of caffeine.
There are currently no anecdotal reports which describe the effects of this compound within our experience index. Additional experience reports can be found here:
Adverse effects, although rare and of short duration are limited to anxiety, insomnia, drowsiness, headaches and agitation. It may be safe for up to 18 months in humans at doses of 3.2g daily with one year-long study in ambulatory patients with Alzheimer's using 8g daily reporting no side effects.[10] However, a possibility for adverse drug-drug interactions persists for piracetam due to it interacting with blood in an anti-clotting manner. Therefore, caution should be taken when pairing piracetam with pharmaceutical blood thinning agents such as Warfarin or potent nutraceutical options and individuals prone to brain hemorrhaging are discouraged from using piracetam.
Patients with renal insufficiency should also not use piracetam.
No fatal overdoses associated with piracetam use have been reported as of 2016. In animal models (rodents, dogs, and marmoset), an LD50 failed to be established at the dosage of 8-10g/kg.
Regardless, it is strongly recommended that one use harm reduction practices when using this substance.
Lethal dosage
The median lethal dosage (LD50) of piracetam has not been officially published as it has low abuse potential, but the typical dosage is two grams once to three times a day.
Dependence and abuse potential
The chronic use of piracetam can be considered as not addictive with a low potential for abuse. It does not seem to be capable of causing psychological dependence among certain users.
Tolerance to many of the effects of piracetam develops with prolonged and repeated use. This results in users having to administer increasingly large doses to achieve the same effects. After that, it takes about 3 - 7 days for the tolerance to be reduced to half and 1 - 2 weeks to be back at baseline (in the absence of further consumption). Piracetam may presents cross-tolerance with [[Cross-tolerance::all racetamnootropics]], meaning that after the consumption of piracetam certain nootropics such as aniracetam and pramiracetam may have a reduced effect.
Dangerous interactions
Piracetam showed nonselective MAO activity in a rat study.[11][12] Piracetam and MAOIs are a potentially dangerous combination. It is likely that MAOIs could increase the effects of piracetam unpredictably. Taking this chemical while on prescription MAOIs is strongly discouraged.
As such, it may contain incomplete or wrong information. You can help by expanding it.
Piracetam, being a member of the racetam family, currently is legally available to buy and sell in most countries, but may still vary by region.
Czech Republic: Piracetam is not regulated and can be bought in a pharmacy.
Germany: Piracetam is a prescription medicine, according to Anlage 1 AMVV.[13]
Switzerland: Piracetam is listed as a "Abgabekategorie B" pharmaceutical, which requires a prescription.[citation needed]
United Kingdom: Piracetam and other racetams are prescription only drugs; however, there is no penalty for possession or importing them.
New Zealand: Piracetam is considered a prescription drug, and as such will be seized by the Ministry of Health. It is not able to be imported without a signed note from a doctor.
↑Malykh, A. G., Sadaie, M. R. (12 February 2010). "Piracetam and piracetam-like drugs: from basic science to novel clinical applications to CNS disorders". Drugs. 70 (3): 287–312. doi:10.2165/11319230-000000000-00000. ISSN1179-1950.
↑Ahmed, A. H., Oswald, R. E. (11 March 2010). "Piracetam defines a new binding site for allosteric modulators of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid (AMPA) receptors". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 53 (5): 2197–2203. doi:10.1021/jm901905j. ISSN1520-4804.
↑Gouliaev, A. H., Senning, A. (May 1994). "Piracetam and other structurally related nootropics". Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews. 19 (2): 180–222. doi:10.1016/0165-0173(94)90011-6.
↑Jordaan, B., Oliver, D. W., Dormehl, I. C., Hugo, N. (September 1996). "Cerebral blood flow effects of piracetam, pentifylline, and nicotinic acid in the baboon model compared with the known effect of acetazolamide". Arzneimittel-Forschung. 46 (9): 844–847. ISSN0004-4172.
↑Winnicka, K., Tomasiak, M., Bielawska, A. (October 2005). "Piracetam--an old drug with novel properties?". Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica. 62 (5): 405–409. ISSN0001-6837.
↑Fedi, M., Reutens, D., Dubeau, F., Andermann, E., D’Agostino, D., Andermann, F. (May 2001). "Long-term efficacy and safety of piracetam in the treatment of progressive myoclonus epilepsy". Archives of Neurology. 58 (5): 781–786. doi:10.1001/archneur.58.5.781. ISSN0003-9942.
↑Stancheva, S. L., Alova, L. G. (June 1988). "[Effect of centrophenoxine, piracetam and aniracetam on the monoamine oxidase activity in different brain structures of rats]". Farmakologiia I Toksikologiia. 51 (3): 16–18. ISSN0014-8318.
↑Trabucchi, M., Govoni, S., Battaini, F. (April 1986). "Changes in the interaction between CNS cholinergic and dopaminergic neurons induced by L-alpha-glycerylphosphorylcholine, a cholinomimetic drug". Il Farmaco; Edizione Scientifica. 41 (4): 325–334. ISSN0430-0920.
