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Cognitive effects - Psychedelics

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This article attempts to break down the cognitive and behavioural effects contained within the psychedelic experience into simple, easy to understand titles, descriptions and levelling systems. This will be done without depending on metaphors, analogies or personal trip reports. The article starts off with descriptions of the simpler effects and works its way up towards more complex experiences as it progresses.

Current mind state enhancement

Emotion intensification (also known as affect intensification)[1] is defined as an increase in a person's current emotional state beyond normal levels of intensity.[2][3][4]

Unlike many other subjective effects such as euphoria or anxiety, this effect does not actively induce specific emotions regardless of a person's current state of mind and mental stability. Instead, it works by passively amplifying and enhancing the genuine emotions that a person is already feeling prior to ingesting the drug or prior to the onset of this effect. This causes emotion intensification to be equally capable of manifesting in both a positive and negative direction.[1][2][4][5][6] This effect highlights the importance of set and setting when using psychedelics in a therapeutic context, especially if the goal is to produce a catharsis.[1][3][6]

For example, an individual who is currently feeling somewhat anxious or emotionally unstable may become overwhelmed with intensified negative emotions, paranoia, and confusion. In contrast, an individual who is generally feeling positive and emotionally stable is more likely to find themselves overwhelmed with states of emotional euphoria, happiness, and feelings of general contentment. The intensity of emotional states felt under emotion intensification can shape the tone of a trip and predispose the user to other effects, such as mania or unity in positive states and thought loops or feelings of impending doom in negative states.[4] Intense negative or difficult emotions may still arise in therapeutic contexts, however (with adequate support) people nevertheless view the experience positively due to the perceived value of integrating the emotional states' additional insight.[1][6]

Emotion intensification is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of psychedelic compounds, such as LSD, psilocybin, and mescaline.[1][2][3][4][6] However, it can also occur under the influence of cannabinoids, GABAergic depressants,[7][8] and stimulants.[5][9]

Thought acceleration

Thought acceleration (also known as racing thoughts)[10] is defined as the experience of thought processes being sped up significantly in comparison to that of everyday sobriety.[11][12] When experiencing this effect, it will often feel as if one rapid-fire thought after the other is being generated in incredibly quick succession. Thoughts while undergoing this effect are not necessarily qualitatively different, but greater in their volume and speed. However, they are commonly associated with a change in mood that can be either positive or negative.[10][13]

Thought acceleration is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as stimulation, anxiety, and analysis enhancement in a manner which not only increases the speed of thought, but also significantly enhances the sharpness of a person's mental clarity. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of stimulant and nootropic compounds, such as amphetamine, methylphenidate, modafinil, and MDMA. However, it can also occur under the influence of certain stimulating psychedelics such as LSD, 2C-E, DOC, AMT.

Thought connectivity

Thought connectivity is defined as an alteration of a person's thought stream which is characterized by a distinct increase in unconstrained wandering thoughts which connect into each other through a fluid association of ideas.[4][14][15][16] During this state, thoughts may be subjectively experienced as a continuous stream of vaguely related ideas which tenuously connect into each other by incorporating a concept that was contained within the previous thought. When experienced, it is often likened to a complex game of word association.

During this state, it is often difficult for the person to consciously guide the direction of their thoughts in a manner that leads into a state of increased distractibility.[4] This will usually also result in one's train of thought contemplating an extremely broad variety of subjects, which can range from important, trivial, insightful, and nonsensical topics.

Thought connectivity is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as thought acceleration and creativity enhancement. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of psychedelic compounds, such as LSD, psilocybin, and mescaline. However, it can also occur to a lesser extent under the influence of dissociatives, stimulants, and cannabinoids.

Feelings of fascination, importance and awe

Novelty enhancement is defined as a feeling of increased fascination[17], awe,[17][18][19] and appreciation[19][20] attributed to specific parts or the entirety of one's external environment. This can result in an often overwhelming impression that everyday concepts such as nature, existence, common events, and even household objects are now considerably more profound, interesting, and significant.[21][6]

The experience of this effect commonly forces those who undergo it to acknowledge, consider, and appreciate the things around them in a level of detail and intensity which remains largely unparalleled throughout every day sobriety. It is often generally described using phrases such as "a sense of wonder"[17][19] or "seeing the world as new".[20]

Novelty enhancement is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as personal bias suppression, emotion intensification and spirituality intensification in a manner which further intensifies the experience. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of psychedelic compounds, such as LSD, psilocybin, and mescaline. However, it can also occur to a lesser extent under the influence of cannabinoids, dissociatives, and entactogens.

Time distortion

Time distortion is defined as an effect that makes the passage of time feel difficult to keep track of and wildly distorted.[22] It is usually felt in two different forms, time dilation and time compression.[23] These two forms are described and documented below:

Time dilation

Time dilation is defined as the feeling that time has slowed down.[24] This commonly occurs during intense hallucinogenic experiences and seems to stem from the fact that during an intense trip, abnormally large amounts of experience are felt in very short periods of time.[25][26] This can create the illusion that more time has passed than actually has. For example, at the end of certain experiences, one may feel that they have subjectively undergone days, weeks, months, years, or even infinite periods of time.

Time dilation is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as spirituality intensification,[27] thought loops, novelty enhancement, and internal hallucinations in a manner which may lead one into perceiving a disproportionately large number of events considering the amount of time that has actually passed in the real world. It is most commonly induced under the influence of heavy dosages of hallucinogenic compounds, such as psychedelics,[28][29] dissociatives, entactogens,[30][31] and cannabinoids.

Time compression

Time compression is defined as the experience of time speeding up and passing much quicker than it usually would while sober. For example, during this state a person may realize that an entire evening has passed them by in what feels like only a couple of hours.

This commonly occurs under the influence of certain stimulating compounds and seems to at least partially stem from the fact that during intense levels of stimulation, people typically become hyper-focused on activities and tasks in a manner which can allow time to pass them by without realizing it. However, the same experience can also occur on depressant compounds which induce amnesia. This occurs due to the way in which a person can literally forget everything that has happened while still experiencing the effects of the substance, thus giving the impression that they have suddenly jumped forward in time.

Time compression is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as memory suppression, focus intensification, stimulation, and amnesia in a manner which may lead one into perceiving a disproportionately small number of events considering the amount of time that has actually passed in the real world. It is most commonly induced under the influence of heavy dosages of stimulating and/or amnesic compounds,[32] such as dissociatives,[33] entactogens, amphetamines, and benzodiazepines.

Time reversal

Time reversal is defined as the perception that the events, hallucinations, and experiences that occurred around one's self within the previous several minutes to several hours are spontaneously playing backwards in a manner which is somewhat similar to that of a rewinding VHS tape. During this reversal, the person's cognition and train of thought will typically continue to play forward in a coherent and linear manner while they watch the external environment around them and their body's physical actions play in reverse order. This can either occur in real time, with 5 minutes of time reversal taking approximately 5 minutes to fully rewind, or it can occur in a manner which is sped up, with 5 minutes of time reversal only taking less than a minute. It can reasonably be speculated that the experience of time reversal may potentially occur through a combination of internal hallucinations and errors in memory encoding.

Time reversal is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as internal hallucinations, thought loops, and deja vu. It is most commonly induced under the influence of extremely heavy dosages of hallucinogenic compounds, such as psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants.

Introspection

Cognitive effects: Introspection

Outrospection

Cognitive effects: Outrospection

Rejuvenation

Rejuvenation can be described as feelings of mild to extreme cognitive refreshment which are felt during the afterglow of certain compounds. The symptoms of rejuvenation often include a sustained sense of heightened mental clarity, increased emotional stability, increased calmness, mindfulness, increased motivation, personal bias suppression, increased focus and decreased depression. At its highest level, feelings of rejuvenation can become so intense that they manifest as the profound and overwhelming sensation of being "reborn" anew. This mindstate can potentially last anywhere from several hours to several months after the substance has worn off.

Rejuvination is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of hallucinogenic compounds, such as psychedelics and dissociatives. However, it can also occur to a lesser extent under the influence of entactogens, cannabinoids, and meditation.

Deja-Vu

Cognitive effects: Deja-Vu

Mindfulness

Cognitive effects: Mindfulness

Multiple thought streams

Multiple thought streams is defined as a state of mind in which a person has more than one internal narrative or stream of consciousness simultaneously occurring within their head. This can result in any number of independent thought streams occurring at the same time, each of which are often controllable in a similar manner to that of one's everyday thought stream.

These multiple coinciding thought streams can be experienced simultaneously in a manner which is evenly distributed and does not prioritize the awareness of any particular thought stream over an other. However, they can also be experienced in a manner which feels as if it brings awareness of a particular thought stream to the foreground while the others continue processing information in the background. This form of multiple thought streams typically swaps between specific trains of thought at seemingly random intervals.

The experience of this effect can sometimes allow one to analyze many different ideas simultaneously and can be a source of great insight. However, it will usually overwhelm the person with an abundance of information that becomes difficult or impossible to fully process at a normal speed.

Multiple thought streams are often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as memory suppression and thought disorganization. They are most commonly induced under the influence of heavy dosages of psychedelic compounds, such as LSD, psilocybin, and mescaline.

Suppression of personal bias

Cognitive effects: Suppression of personal bias

Feelings of predeterminism

Cognitive effects: Feelings of predeterminism

Conceptual thinking

Cognitive effects: Conceptual thinking

Direct communication with the subconscious

Cognitive effects: Direct communication with the subconscious

Ego suppression, loss and death

Cognitive effects: Ego suppression, loss and death

Personality regression

Cognitive effects: Personality regression

Thought loops

Cognitive effects: Thought loops

Feelings of interdependent opposites

Cognitive effects: Feelings of interdependent opposites

Delusions

Cognitive effects: Delusions

States of unity and interconnectedness

Cognitive effects: States of unity and interconnectedness

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Gasser, Peter; Kirchner, Katharina; Passie, Torsten (2014). "LSD-assisted psychotherapy for anxiety associated with a life-threatening disease: A qualitative study of acute and sustained subjective effects". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 29 (1): 57–68. doi:10.1177/0269881114555249. ISSN 0269-8811. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Kaelen, M.; Barrett, F. S.; Roseman, L.; Lorenz, R.; Family, N.; Bolstridge, M.; Curran, H. V.; Feilding, A.; Nutt, D. J.; Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2015). "LSD enhances the emotional response to music". Psychopharmacology. 232 (19): 3607–3614. doi:10.1007/s00213-015-4014-y. ISSN 0033-3158. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Hartogsohn, Ido (2018). "The Meaning-Enhancing Properties of Psychedelics and Their Mediator Role in Psychedelic Therapy, Spirituality, and Creativity". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 12. doi:10.3389/fnins.2018.00129. ISSN 1662-453X. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Swanson, Link R. (2018). "Unifying Theories of Psychedelic Drug Effects". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 9. doi:10.3389/fphar.2018.00172. ISSN 1663-9812. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Miller, Melissa A.; Bershad, Anya K.; de Wit, Harriet (2015). "Drug effects on responses to emotional facial expressions". Behavioural Pharmacology. 26 (6): 571–579. doi:10.1097/FBP.0000000000000164. ISSN 0955-8810. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Belser, Alexander B.; Agin-Liebes, Gabrielle; Swift, T. Cody; Terrana, Sara; Devenot, Neşe; Friedman, Harris L.; Guss, Jeffrey; Bossis, Anthony; Ross, Stephen (2017). "Patient Experiences of Psilocybin-Assisted Psychotherapy: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 57 (4): 354–388. doi:10.1177/0022167817706884. ISSN 0022-1678. 
  7. ↑ Kamboj, Sunjeev K.; Joye, Alyssa; Bisby, James A.; Das, Ravi K.; Platt, Bradley; Curran, H. Valerie (2012). "Processing of facial affect in social drinkers: a dose–response study of alcohol using dynamic emotion expressions". Psychopharmacology. 227 (1): 31–39. doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2940-5. ISSN 0033-3158. 
  8. ↑ Philippot, Pierre; Kornreich, Charles; Blairy, Sylvie; Baert, Iseult; Dulk, Anne Den; Bon, Olivier Le; Streel, Emmanuel; Hess, Ursula; Pelc, Isy; Verbanck, Paul (1999). "Alcoholics'Deficits in the Decoding of Emotional Facial Expression". Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 23 (6): 1031–1038. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.1999.tb04221.x. ISSN 0145-6008. 
  9. ↑ Wardle, Margaret C.; Garner, Matthew J.; Munafò, Marcus R.; de Wit, Harriet (2012). "Amphetamine as a social drug: effects of d-amphetamine on social processing and behavior". Psychopharmacology. 223 (2): 199–210. doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2708-y. ISSN 0033-3158. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Piguet, Camille; Dayer, Alexandre; Kosel, Markus; Desseilles, Martin; Vuilleumier, Patrik; Bertschy, Gilles (2010). "Phenomenology of racing and crowded thoughts in mood disorders: A theoretical reappraisal". Journal of Affective Disorders. 121 (3): 189–198. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2009.05.006. ISSN 0165-0327. 
  11. ↑ Pronin, Emily; Jacobs, Elana; Wegner, Daniel M. (2008). "Psychological effects of thought acceleration". Emotion. 8 (5): 597–612. doi:10.1037/a0013268. ISSN 1931-1516. 
  12. ↑ Yang, Kaite; Friedman-Wheeler, Dara G.; Pronin, Emily (2014). "Thought Acceleration Boosts Positive Mood Among Individuals with Minimal to Moderate Depressive Symptoms". Cognitive Therapy and Research. 38 (3): 261–269. doi:10.1007/s10608-014-9597-9. ISSN 0147-5916. 
  13. ↑ Pronin, Emily; Jacobs, Elana (2008). "Thought Speed, Mood, and the Experience of Mental Motion". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 3 (6): 461–485. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00091.x. ISSN 1745-6916. 
  14. ↑ Carhart-Harris, Robin L.; Leech, Robert; Hellyer, Peter J.; Shanahan, Murray; Feilding, Amanda; Tagliazucchi, Enzo; Chialvo, Dante R.; Nutt, David (2014). "The entropic brain: a theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 8. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00020. ISSN 1662-5161. 
  15. ↑ Tagliazucchi, Enzo; Carhart-Harris, Robin; Leech, Robert; Nutt, David; Chialvo, Dante R. (2014). "Enhanced repertoire of brain dynamical states during the psychedelic experience". Human Brain Mapping. 35 (11): 5442–5456. doi:10.1002/hbm.22562. ISSN 1065-9471. 
  16. ↑ Hu, Dewen; Palhano-Fontes, Fernanda; Andrade, Katia C.; Tofoli, Luis F.; Santos, Antonio C.; Crippa, Jose Alexandre S.; Hallak, Jaime E. C.; Ribeiro, Sidarta; de Araujo, Draulio B. (2015). "The Psychedelic State Induced by Ayahuasca Modulates the Activity and Connectivity of the Default Mode Network". PLOS ONE. 10 (2): e0118143. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0118143. ISSN 1932-6203. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Hunt, Harry T. (1976). "A Test of the Psychedelic Model of Altered States of Consciousness". Archives of General Psychiatry. 33 (7): 867. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1976.01770070097012. ISSN 0003-990X. 
  18. ↑ Bonner, Edward T.; Friedman, Harris L. (2011). "A conceptual clarification of the experience of awe: An interpretative phenomenological analysis". The Humanistic Psychologist. 39 (3): 222–235. doi:10.1080/08873267.2011.593372. ISSN 1547-3333. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Griffiths, Roland R; Johnson, Matthew W; Richards, William A; Richards, Brian D; Jesse, Robert; MacLean, Katherine A; Barrett, Frederick S; Cosimano, Mary P; Klinedinst, Maggie A (2017). "Psilocybin-occasioned mystical-type experience in combination with meditation and other spiritual practices produces enduring positive changes in psychological functioning and in trait measures of prosocial attitudes and behaviors". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 32 (1): 49–69. doi:10.1177/0269881117731279. ISSN 0269-8811. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Das, Saibal; Barnwal, Preeti; Ramasamy, Anand; Sen, Sumalya; Mondal, Somnath (2016). "Lysergic acid diethylamide: a drug of 'use'?". Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology. 6 (3): 214–228. doi:10.1177/2045125316640440. ISSN 2045-1253. 
  21. ↑ Bowers, Malcolm B. (1966). ""Psychedelic" Experiences in Acute Psychoses". Archives of General Psychiatry. 15 (3): 240. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1966.01730150016003. ISSN 0003-990X. 
  22. ↑ N. Stanciu, C., M. Penders, T. (1 June 2016). "Hallucinogen Persistent Perception Disorder Induced by New Psychoactive Substituted Phenethylamines; A Review with Illustrative Case". Current Psychiatry Reviews. 12 (2): 221–223. 
  23. ↑ Nichols, D. E. (2016). "Psychedelics". Pharmacological Reviews. 68 (2): 264–355. doi:10.1124/pr.115.011478. ISSN 1521-0081. 
  24. ↑ Pink-Hashkes, S., Rooij, I. J. E. I. van, Kwisthout, J. H. P. (2017). "Perception is in the details: A predictive coding account of the psychedelic phenomenon". London, UK : Cognitive Science Society. 
  25. ↑ Hill, R. M.; Fischer, R.; Warshay, Diana (1969). "Effects of excitatory and tranquilizing drugs on visual perception. spatial distortion thresholds". Experientia. 25 (2): 171–172. doi:10.1007/BF01899105. ISSN 0014-4754. 
  26. ↑ Fischer, R. (1971). "A Cartography of the Ecstatic and Meditative States". Science. 174 (4012): 897–904. doi:10.1126/science.174.4012.897. ISSN 0036-8075. 
  27. ↑ Buckley, P. (1981). "Mystical Experience and Schizophrenia". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 7 (3): 516–521. doi:10.1093/schbul/7.3.516. ISSN 0586-7614. 
  28. ↑ Schroll, M. A. (2013). "From ecopsychology to transpersonal ecosophy: Shamanism, psychedelics and transpersonal psychology" (PDF). European Journal of Ecopsychology. 4: 116–144. 
  29. ↑ Riley, Sarah C.E.; Blackman, Graham (2009). "Between Prohibitions: Patterns and Meanings of Magic Mushroom Use in the UK". Substance Use & Misuse. 43 (1): 55–71. doi:10.1080/10826080701772363. ISSN 1082-6084. 
  30. ↑ Nikolova, I.; Danchev, N. (2014). "Piperazine Based Substances of Abuse: A new Party Pills on Bulgarian Drug Market". Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment. 22 (2): 652–655. doi:10.1080/13102818.2008.10817529. ISSN 1310-2818. 
  31. ↑ Yeap, C. W., Bian, C. K., Abdullah, A. F. L. (2010). "A Review on Benzylpiperazine and Trifluoromethylphenypiperazine: Origins, Effects, Prevalence and Legal Status". Health and the Environment Journal. 1 (2): 38–50. 
  32. ↑ Griffith, John D.; Nutt, John G.; Jasinski, Donald R. (1975). "A comparison of fenfluramine and amphetamine in man". Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 18 (5part1): 563–570. doi:10.1002/cpt1975185part1563. ISSN 0009-9236. 
  33. ↑ Corazza, Ornella; Assi, Sulaf; Schifano, Fabrizio (2013). "From "Special K" to "Special M": The Evolution of the Recreational Use of Ketamine and Methoxetamine". CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics. 19 (6): 454–460. doi:10.1111/cns.12063. ISSN 1755-5930. 
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