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'''Physical suppressions''' can be defined as any | '''Physical suppressions''' can be defined as any effect which lessens or dulls a facet of one's physical body. | ||
This page lists and describes the various physical suppressions which can occur under the influence of certain psychoactive compounds such as psychedelics. | This page lists and describes the various physical suppressions which can occur under the influence of certain psychoactive compounds such as psychedelics. |
Revision as of 01:36, 4 July 2016
Physical suppressions can be defined as any effect which lessens or dulls a facet of one's physical body.
This page lists and describes the various physical suppressions which can occur under the influence of certain psychoactive compounds such as psychedelics.
Appetite suppression
Appetite suppression can be described as the experience of a distinct decrease in a person's sense of hunger and appetite in a manner which can result in both a lesser desire to eat food and a decreased enjoyment of its taste.[1] This typically results in the person undergoing prolonged periods of time without eating food.
Depending on the intensity, this effect can result in a sense of complete disinterest or even disgust concerning food. At times, it can often result in physical discomfort (such as Nausea) when attempting to eat food. In cases of severe appetite suppression, it is often easier for a person to consume liquid food, such as protein shakes, in order to receive the nutrition needed to function.
Appetite suppression is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as stimulation or pain relief in a manner which can lead to feeling as if one either has enough energy to not need food or has enough anaesthesthia to not feel the pain of hunger. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of stimulant[2] compounds, such as amphetamine[3], methylphenidate,[4] nicotine,[5] MDMA,[6] and cocaine. However, it may also occur under the influence of other compounds such as opioids, psychedelics, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It is worth noting that if these substances are used for prolonged periods of time, weight loss often occurs as a result.
Cough suppression
Cough suppression can be described as a decreased desire and need to cough.[7][8] This is typically regarded as a positive effect which helps alleviate a pre-existing ailment. In certain contexts, it can also allow an individual to inhale much larger amounts of smoke than they would usually be able to, without accompanying pain or the desire to cough. However, it is worth noting that the efficacy of many over the counter cough medication is questionable, particularly in children.
Cough suppression is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of antitussive compounds such as, codeine[9], pholcodine, dextromethorphan[10], noscapine, and butamirate. However, it may also occur under the influence of certain antihistamines such as promethazine.
Perception of decreased weight
Perception of bodily lightness can be described as feeling as if one's body has significantly decreased in its weight. This can result in feelings of increased energy and a general sense of bounciness due to the body seeming weightless and therefore effortless to move.
Perception of bodily lightness is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as stimulation and physical disconnection. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of dissociative compounds, such as ketamine, PCP, and DXM. However, it can also occur under the influence of certain stimulating psychedelics such as certain LSD, 4-HO-MET, and 2C-B.
Motor control loss
Motor control loss can be described as feeling as if there has been a distinct decrease in a person's ability to control their physical body with precision, balance, coordination, and dexterity.
At lower levels, this results in experiencing much more difficulty performing tasks which require movement of any sort. For example, simple tasks such as typing without making spelling errors, walking without staggering, or carrying a glass of water without spilling it may all become much more challenging. At higher levels, however, this state can move beyond subtle in its effects and become capable of completely disabling the person's ability to use any level of fine or gross motor control. This typically results in catatonic states in which a person cannot even walk without falling over.
Motor control loss is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as sedation and disinhibition. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of GABAergic depressant compounds, such as, alcohol, benzodiazepines, Carisoprodol, GHB, and phenibut. However, it may also occur to a lesser extent under the influence of other compounds such as dissociatives.
Nausea suppression
Nausea suppression can be described as a reduction in vomiting, stomach cramps, and general feelings of nausea.
A mostly comprehensive list of the most common substances which induce this effect can be found below:
5-HT3 receptor antagonists
-
Drugs which bind to 5-HT3 receptors in the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract are known to reduce nausea by inhibiting binding to the receptor which induces vomiting.
- Dolasetron (Anzemet) can be administered in tablet form or in an injection.
- Granisetron (Kytril, Sancuso) can be administered in tablet (Kytril), oral solution (Kytril), injection (Kytril), or in a single transdermal patch to the upper arm (Sancuso).
- Ondansetron (Zofran) is administered in an oral tablet, orally dissolving tablet, orally dissolving film, or in an IV/IM injection.
- Tropisetron (Setrovel, Navoban) can be administered in oral capsules or in injection form.
- Palonosetron (Aloxi) can be administered in an injection or in oral capsules.
- Mirtazapine (Remeron) is an antidepressant that has antiemetic effects and is also a potent histamine H1 antagonist.
Cannabinoids
-
Cannabinoids are used in patients with cachexia, cytotoxic nausea, and vomiting or for those who are unresponsive to other agents. These may cause changes in perception, dizziness, and loss of coordination.
- Cannabis - In the United States, this is a Schedule I drug that is legalized in many states.
- Dronabinol (Marinol) is a Schedule III drug in the United States.
- Synthetic cannabinoids such as nabilone (Cesamet), the JWH series, or 5F-PB-22.
- Sativex is an oral spray containing THC and CBD. It is currently legal in Canada and a few countries in Europe, but is not legal in the United States.
Benzodiazepines
-
- Midazolam given at the onset of anaesthesia has been shown in recent trials to be as effective as ondansetron.
- Lorazepam is said to be very good as an adjunct treatment for nausea along with first line medications such as Compazine or Zofran.
Antihistamines
-
H1 histamine receptor antagonists are effective for many conditions including motion sickness, morning sickness in pregnancy, and to combat opioid nausea.
- Cyclizine
- Diphenhydramine (Benadryl)
- Dimenhydrinate (Gravol, Dramamine)
- Doxylamine
- Meclozine (Bonine, Antivert)
- Promethazine (Pentazine, Phenergan, Promacot) can be administered via a rectal suppository for adults and children over 2 years of age.
- Hydroxyzine
Miscellaneous
-
- Dicyclomine
- Trimethobenzamide
- Ginger contains the 5-HT3 antagonists gingerols and shogaols.
- Lemon essential oil is reported to be an effective anti-nausea agent. The oil can be consumed in a capsule or applied to the skin via a carrier oil.[11]
- Emetrol is claimed to be an effective antiemetic.
- Propofol given intravenously has been used in an acute care setting in hospitals as a rescue therapy for emesis.
- Peppermint is claimed to help nausea or stomach pain when added into tea or peppermint candies.
- Muscimol
- Ajwain is a popular nausea relieving spice in India, Ethiopia and Eritrea.
Pain relief
Pain relief can be described as an effect which suppresses negative sensations such as aches and pains. This can occur through a variety of different pharmacological and subjective mechanisms such as blocking the physical sensations from reaching one's conscious faculties, by covering the sensation with feelings of physical and cognitive euphoria, or by directly targetting the body part which the sensation is arising from.[citation needed]
Pain relief is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as muscle relaxation, physical euphoria, and sedation. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of a very wide variety of compounds, such as opioids, GABAergics, GABApentinoids, cannabinoids, dissociatives, muscle relaxants, and NSAID's.
Respiratory depression
Respiratory depression (also known as hypoventilation) can be described as a reduced urge to breathe that can be fatal depending on its intensity. At relatively safe levels, this effect typically causes a "sighing" pattern of breathing which can be described as deep breaths separated by abnormally long pauses. At higher levels, however, an individual may cease breathing entirely in a manner which is rapidly fatal without immediate treatment.
This effect is capable of manifesting itself across the 4 different levels of intensity described below:
- Minimal respiratory depression - At the lowest level, respiratory depression is typically subtle enough to be unnoticeable and is accompanied by mild sedation.
- Moderate respiratory depression - At this level, the person becomes aware of the sensation that they are taking fewer breaths per minute than usual. This level of respiratory depression is not uncomfortable and does not result in any shortness, struggling, or impairment of breath.
- Severe respiratory depression - At this level, a person's rate of breathing becomes noticeably slowed down by a significant margin which results in the person feeling that they are breathing abnormally, are short of breath, and cannot breathe in enough air. This forcibly redirects the person's focal point of attention towards manually regulating their own breathing in order to not feel extremely uncomfortable. At this point, extreme sedation is usually also present and if sleep occurs the person can potentially wake up struggling and gasping for air. Confusion, panic, and anxiety often occur at this level, further increasing the strong sensation that one's breathing will stop completely due to sleep or a lack of attention.
- Respiratory failure - At the highest level, the person's oxygen and carbon dioxide levels become dangerously impaired. The person will fall into a semi-conscious state, lose consciousness completely, slip into a coma, or stop breathing completely. The skin, fingernails, or lips may also have a blue-ish colour to them. This level of respiratory failure will likely be fatal without immediate medical attention.[12] Opioids and barbiturates, in overdose or combined with other depressants, are notorious for such fatalities.
Respiratory depression is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as sedation and sleepiness. It is most commonly induced under the influence of heavy dosages of depressant compounds, particularly opioids, such as heroin and fentanyl, or GABAergics, such as alcohol and GHB. However, it is worth noting that otherwise safe dosages of these compounds can become fatal when combined with even small amounts of other classes of depressant. For example, benzodiazepines combined with opioids are an extremely common cause of fatal respiratory depression. It is therefore strongly discouraged to combine these depressants at any dosage range.
Treatment
To prevent death, it is recommended to contact emergency medical services immediately in case of severe respiratory depression. If caused by an opioid overdose, an opioid antagonist, such as naloxone, should be administered. Many harm reduction organizations provide naloxone to users for free or it can be bought at pharmacies (including Walgreens and CVS in the U.S.). Naloxone will rapidly reverse the respiratory depression unless complicated by other depressants.
For other drug-induced respiratory depression, hospitalization and the assistance of a mechanical breathing machine may be necessary.
Sedation
Sedation can be described as a decrease in a person's physical energy levels which are interpreted as discouraging when it comes to wakefulness, movement, performing tasks, talkativeness, and general exercise. At lower levels, sedation typically results in feelings of general relaxation and a loss of energy. At higher levels, however, sedation typically results in the person passing out into temporary unconsciousness.
This effect is capable of manifesting itself across the 4 different levels of intensity described below:
- Minimal sedation - At the lowest level, the person will feel subtly lower in energy and alertness. They will likely have an increased desire to sleep or at least relax in a manner which is typically possible to ignore.
- Moderate sedation - At this level, the person will begin to drift off to sleep. However, they will still respond to noises and physical sensations if they are particularly prominent or above usual noise levels.
- Deep sedation - At this level, the person will have drifted off into a deep sleep. They will typically be mostly unresponsive unless subjected to repeated or painful stimulation.
- General anaesthesia - At the highest level, the person will be completely unconscious. They will be completely unarousable even with repeated painful stimulus.
Sedation is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as muscle relaxation, thought deceleration, and sleepiness in a manner which further intensifies the person's feelings of relaxation. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of depressant compounds, such as opioids, GABAergics, and antipsychotics. However, it may also occur to a lesser extent under the influence of other compounds such as cannabinoids and certain psychedelics.
Seizure suppression
Seizure suppression is an effect caused by drugs known as "anticonvulsants". These drugs prevent or reduce the severity and frequency of seizures in various types of epilepsy.
The different types of anticonvulsants may act on different receptors in the brain and have different modes of action. Two mechanisms that appear to be important in anticonvulsants are an enhancement of GABA action and inhibition of sodium channel activity. Other mechanisms are the inhibition of calcium channels and glutamate receptors.
Seizure suppression is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of certain GABAergic compounds and certain cannabinoids.
Tactile suppression
Tactile suppression can be described as a decrease in one's ability to feel their sense of touch in a manner which can result in a general numbness across the body. At higher levels, this can eventually increase to the point where physical sensations have been completely blocked and the body is fully anaesthetized.
Tactile suppression is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as pain relief and physical euphoria. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of dissociative compounds, such as ketamine, PCP, and DXM. However, it can also occur under the influence of opioids and certain GABAergic depressants.
See also
References
- ↑ Silverstone, T. (June 1992). "Appetite Suppressants: A Review". Drugs. 43 (6): 820–836. doi:10.2165/00003495-199243060-00003. ISSN 0012-6667.
- ↑ Poulton, A. S., Hibbert, E. J., Champion, B. L., Nanan, R. K. H. (2016). "Stimulants for the Control of Hedonic Appetite". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 7. ISSN 1663-9812.
- ↑ Hsieh, Y.-S., Yang, S.-F., Kuo, D.-Y. (April 2005). "Amphetamine, an appetite suppressant, decreases neuropeptide Y immunoreactivity in rat hypothalamic paraventriculum". Regulatory Peptides. 127 (1–3): 169–176. doi:10.1016/j.regpep.2004.11.007. ISSN 0167-0115.
- ↑ Davis, C., Fattore, L., Kaplan, A. S., Carter, J. C., Levitan, R. D., Kennedy, J. L. (March 2012). "The suppression of appetite and food consumption by methylphenidate: the moderating effects of gender and weight status in healthy adults". The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 15 (02): 181–187. doi:10.1017/S1461145711001039. ISSN 1461-1457.
- ↑ Seeley, R. J., Sandoval, D. A. (July 2011). "Weight loss through smoking". Nature. 475 (7355): 176–177. doi:10.1038/475176a. ISSN 0028-0836.
- ↑ Francis, H. M., Kraushaar, N. J., Hunt, L. R., Cornish, J. L. (February 2011). "Serotonin 5-HT4 receptors in the nucleus accumbens are specifically involved in the appetite suppressant and not locomotor stimulant effects of MDMA ('ecstasy')". Psychopharmacology. 213 (2–3): 355–363. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-1982-9. ISSN 0033-3158.
- ↑ Smith, Susan M., Schroeder, Knut, Fahey, Tom (24 November 2014). "Over-the-counter (OTC) medications for acute cough in children and adults in community settings". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001831.pub5. ISSN 1465-1858.
- ↑ Malesker, M. A., Callahan-Lyon, P., Ireland, B., Irwin, R. S., Adams, T. M., Altman, K. W., Azoulay, E., Barker, A. F., Birring, S. S., Blackhall, F., Bolser, D. C., Boulet, L.-P., Braman, S. S., Brightling, C., Callahan-Lyon, P., Chang, A. B., Coté, A., Cowley, T., Davenport, P., Ebihara, S., El Solh, A. A., Escalante, P., Field, S. K., Fisher, D., French, C. T., Grant, C., Gibson, P., Gold, P., Harding, S. M., Harnden, A., Hill, A. T., Irwin, R. S., Kahrilas, P. J., Kavanagh, J., Keogh, K. A., Lai, K., Lane, A. P., Lim, K., Madison, J. M., Malesker, M. A., Mazzone, S., McGarvey, L., Molassoitis, A., Murad, M. H., Narasimhan, M., Newcombe, P., Nguyen, H. Q., Oppenheimer, J., Restrepo, M. I., Rosen, M., Rubin, B., Ryu, J. H., Smith, J., Tarlo, S. M., Turmel, J., Vertigan, A. E., Wang, G., Weinberger, M., Weir, K. (November 2017). "Pharmacologic and Nonpharmacologic Treatment for Acute Cough Associated With the Common Cold". Chest. 152 (5): 1021–1037. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2017.08.009. ISSN 0012-3692.
- ↑ Bolser, D. C., Davenport, P. W. (February 2007). "Codeine and cough: an ineffective gold standard". Current Opinion in Allergy & Clinical Immunology. 7 (1): 32–36. doi:10.1097/ACI.0b013e3280115145. ISSN 1528-4050.
- ↑ Dealleaume, L., Tweed, B., Neher, J. O. (October 2009). "Do OTC remedies relieve cough in acute URIs?". The Journal of Family Practice. 58 (10): 559a–c. ISSN 1533-7294.
- ↑ 69ron (2008). "Lemon essential oil: way more effective than ginger for treating nausea" Nature's Herb Forum.
- ↑ What Is Respiratory Failure? | https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/rf/