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'''Yohimbine''' hydrochloride (also known as '''quebrachine''') is a [[naturally-occurring]] [[Psychoactive class::stimulant]] substance of the [[chemical class::indole alkaloid]] class derived from the bark of the African tree [[wikipedia:Pausinystalia johimbe|''Pausinystalia johimbe'']]. It is the major active constituent of the bark, with the active ingredient being yohimbine hydrochloride. It has various uses including as an aphrodisiac and a weight loss agent. Yohimbine is also used as a mydriatic and sympatholytic and has been suggested as an antidote to [[clonidine]] and [[wikipedia:xylazine|xylazine]] overdose.
'''Yohimbine''' (also known as '''quebrachine''') is a [[naturally-occurring]] [[Psychoactive class::stimulant]] substance of the [[chemical class::indoloquinolizidine]] class derived from the bark of the African tree [[wikipedia:Pausinystalia johimbe|''Pausinystalia johimbe'']]. It has various uses including as an aphrodisiac and a weight loss agent. Yohimbine is also used as a mydriatic and sympatholytic and has been suggested as an antidote to [[clonidine]] and [[wikipedia:xylazine|xylazine]] overdose.
According to many users, yohimbine, in comparison with other psychoactive [[stimulants]], is not a recreational substance and does not cause [[euphoria]].
==Chemistry==
==Chemistry==
{{chemistry}}
{{chemistry}}
Yohimbine is an indole alkaloid molecule of the indole chemical class. It is structurally related to [[wikipedia:mitragynine|mitragynine]] but shows a totally different pharmacology.
Yohimbine is an indole alkaloid molecule of the indoloquinolizidine chemical class. It is structurally related to [[wikipedia:mitragynine|mitragynine]] but shows a totally different pharmacology.
==Pharmacology==
==Pharmacology==
{{pharmacology}}
The primary and most researched mechanism of yohimbine is antagonism of a class of receptors known as alpha-2 [[adrenergic]] [[receptors]], thus it increases [[noradrenaline]] levels by preventing their uptake into subsequent neurons. Blocking alpha-2 adrenoceptors increases blood pressure, releases insulin, and decreases blood sugar levels. Yohimbine also, however, blocking alpha-1 adrenergic receptors, albeit with lower affinity. It also has been shown to weak [[MAOI|inhibit monoamine oxidase]].<ref name="Toxic">Encyclopedia of Toxicology | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123864543007995</ref>
Yohimbine antagonize alpha-2 [[adrenergic]] [[receptors]], leading to increased blood flow to the genital area, where blocking the presynaptic alpha-2 receptors will lead to an increase in both nitric oxide and [[noradrenaline]] release. Blocking alpha-2 adrenoceptors increases blood pressure, releases insulin, and decreases blood sugar levels. Yohimbine also, however, interacts with alpha-1 adrenergic receptors, albeit with lower affinity, therefore, at higher doses an α<sub>1</sub> blockade can occur and overwhelm the effects of the α<sub>2</sub> blockade, making it difficult to predict the response (alpha-1 antagonism reduces blood pressure and overall CNS stimulation). It also has been shown to weak [[MAOI|inhibit monoamine oxidase]].<ref name="Toxic">Encyclopedia of Toxicology | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123864543007995</ref>
In high concentrations yohimbine behaves as an [[antagonist]] at [[dopamine]] D<sub>2</sub> and D<sub>3</sub> [[receptors]], [[serotonin]] 5-HT<sub>1B</sub>, 5-HT<sub>1D</sub>, and 5-HT<sub>2B</sub> receptors, and as a partial [[agonist]] at 5-HT<sub>1A</sub>.<ref>Agonist and antagonist actions of yohimbine as compared to fluparoxan at alpha(2)-adrenergic receptors (AR)s, serotonin (5-HT)(1A), 5-HT(1B), 5-HT(1D) and dopamine D(2) and D(3) receptors. Significance for the modulation of frontocortical monoaminergic transmission and depressive states. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10611634</ref>
In high concentrations yohimbine behaves as an [[antagonist]] at [[dopamine]] D<sub>2</sub> and D<sub>3</sub> [[receptors]], [[serotonin]] 5-HT<sub>1B</sub>, 5-HT<sub>1D</sub>, and 5-HT<sub>2B</sub> receptors, and as a partial [[agonist]] at 5-HT<sub>1A</sub>.<ref>Agonist and antagonist actions of yohimbine as compared to fluparoxan at alpha(2)-adrenergic receptors (AR)s, serotonin (5-HT)(1A), 5-HT(1B), 5-HT(1D) and dopamine D(2) and D(3) receptors. Significance for the modulation of frontocortical monoaminergic transmission and depressive states. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10611634</ref>
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==Subjective effects==
==Subjective effects==
{{EffectStub}}
{{EffectStub}}
Compared to other [[stimulants]], yohimbine can be described as less recreational. For many users, it is unpleasant, and often even with a small dosage causes [[anxiety]] and [[irritability]].
{{Preamble/SubjectiveEffects}}
{{Preamble/SubjectiveEffects}}
{{effects/base
{{effects/base
|{{effects/physical|
|{{effects/physical|
*'''[[Effect::Stimulation]]''' - Stimulation is especially noticeable once you begin an activity that increase adrenaline output, such as training.
*'''[[Effect::Stimulation]]''' - In terms of its effects on the physical energy levels of the user, yohimbine is usually considered to be mildly to moderately energetic and stimulating in a fashion that is considerably weaker in comparison to that of traditional recreational stimulants such as [[amphetamine]] or [[cocaine]], but stronger than [[caffeine]].
*'''[[Effect::Appetite suppression]]'''<ref>Yohimbine and rauwolscine reduce food intake of genetically obese (obob) and lean mice. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6145164</ref>
*'''[[Effect::Appetite suppression]]'''<ref>Yohimbine and rauwolscine reduce food intake of genetically obese (obob) and lean mice. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6145164</ref>
*'''[[Effect::Increased salivation]]'''<ref>Evidence for activation of both adrenergic and cholinergic nervous pathways by yohimbine, an alpha 2-adrenoceptor antagonist. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7557820</ref>
*'''[[Effect::Increased salivation]]'''<ref>Evidence for activation of both adrenergic and cholinergic nervous pathways by yohimbine, an alpha 2-adrenoceptor antagonist. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7557820</ref>
*'''[[Effect::Tactile enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Tactile enhancement]]'''
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*'''[[Effect::Motor control loss|Incoordination]]'''<ref name="Toxic"/>
*'''[[Effect::Motor control loss|Incoordination]]'''<ref name="Toxic"/>
*'''[[Effect::Anxiety suppression]]''' - Yohimbine decrease social anxiety and increased mood. <ref>Yohimbine enhancement of exposure therapy for social anxiety disorder: a randomized controlled trial. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24237691</ref><ref>Cognitive Enhancers for Anxiety Disorders (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3114287/</ref>
*'''[[Effect::Analysis enhancement]]'''<ref>Differential effects of noradrenergic drugs on anxiety and arousal in healthy volunteers with high and low anxiety. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9004342</ref>
*'''[[Effect::Analysis enhancement]]'''<ref>Differential effects of noradrenergic drugs on anxiety and arousal in healthy volunteers with high and low anxiety. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9004342</ref>
*'''[[Effect::Anxiety]]'''<ref name="Toxic"/>
*'''[[Effect::Anxiety]]'''<ref name="Toxic"/> - Due to effectively increasing noradrenaline, the neural side-effects of excess noradrenaline may result if too high a dose is taken.
*'''[[Effect::Increased libido]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Increased libido]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Irritability]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Irritability]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Memory enhancement]]''' - Yohimbine improve long-term memory by increasing norepinephrine levels.<ref>Stimulation of the noradrenergic system enhances and blockade reduces memory for emotional material in man. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10576300</ref>
*'''[[Effect::Motivation enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Motivation enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Thought acceleration]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Thought acceleration]]'''
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*'''[[Effect::Cognitive dysphoria]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Cognitive dysphoria]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Emotion enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Emotion enhancement]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Dream potentiation]]'''
}}
}}
}}
}}
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==Toxicity and harm potential==
==Toxicity and harm potential==
Yohimbine has a [[Toxicity::low toxicity]] relative to dose. Side effects associated with the use of yohimbine include anxiety, an increased urinary frequency, and increases in blood pressure at higher doses.<ref name="Biomedical">Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128012383988627</ref> Higher doses (200 – 5,000 mg) result in stronger side effects and can be toxic to the brain. Extremely high doses (above 5,000 mg) can be lethal.<ref>Case study: two fatal case reports of acute yohimbine intoxication. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23846025</ref>
Yohimbine is not known to cause harm in reasonable doses, and has an [[Toxicity::low toxicity]] relative to dose. Various studies have shown that in reasonable doses in a careful context, it presents few negative cognitive, psychiatric or toxic physical consequences, though some exist. Higher doses (200 – 5,000 mg) result in stronger side effects and can be toxic to the brain. Extremely high doses (above 5,000 mg) can be lethal.<ref>Case study: two fatal case reports of acute yohimbine intoxication. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23846025</ref>
It is strongly recommended that one be familiar with [[responsible drug use|harm reduction practices]] when using this drug.
===Dependence and abuse potential===
===Dependence and abuse potential===
Yohimbine may potentially be [[Addiction potential::mildly habit forming]] and the desire to use it may actually ''increase'' with use. However, in comparison to other more traditional [[stimulants]] such as [[amphetamine]] or [[methylphenidate]], it is not nearly as addictive or compulsive.
Yohimbine is not known to be [[Addiction potential::not habit-forming]] and the desire to use it can actually decrease with use. It is most often self-regulating.
Tolerance to the effects of yohimbine are quickly built [[Time to full tolerance::after repeated and frequent usage]]. After that, it takes about [[Time to half tolerance::7 days]] for the tolerance to be reduced to half and [[Time to zero tolerance::14 days]] to be back at baseline (in the absence of further consumption). Yohimbine does not produce cross-tolerance with most other [[stimulants]].
===Dangerous interactions===
===Dangerous interactions===
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==Legal status==
==Legal status==
{{LegalStub}}
Yohimbine is legal in nearly all parts of the world.
It may contain incorrect information, particularly with respect to dosage, duration, subjective effects, toxicity and other risks. It may also not meet PW style and grammar standards.
WARNING: Always start with lower doses due to differences between individual body weight, tolerance, metabolism, and personal sensitivity. See responsible use section.
DISCLAIMER: PW's dosage information is gathered from users and resources for educational purposes only. It is not a recommendation and should be verified with other sources for accuracy.
Yohimbine (also known as quebrachine) is a naturally-occurringstimulant substance of the indoloquinolizidine class derived from the bark of the African tree Pausinystalia johimbe. It has various uses including as an aphrodisiac and a weight loss agent. Yohimbine is also used as a mydriatic and sympatholytic and has been suggested as an antidote to clonidine and xylazine overdose.
According to many users, yohimbine, in comparison with other psychoactive stimulants, is not a recreational substance and does not cause euphoria.
Yohimbine is an indole alkaloid molecule of the indoloquinolizidine chemical class. It is structurally related to mitragynine but shows a totally different pharmacology.
Pharmacology
The primary and most researched mechanism of yohimbine is antagonism of a class of receptors known as alpha-2 adrenergicreceptors, thus it increases noradrenaline levels by preventing their uptake into subsequent neurons. Blocking alpha-2 adrenoceptors increases blood pressure, releases insulin, and decreases blood sugar levels. Yohimbine also, however, blocking alpha-1 adrenergic receptors, albeit with lower affinity. It also has been shown to weak inhibit monoamine oxidase.[1]
Compared to other stimulants, yohimbine can be described as less recreational. For many users, it is unpleasant, and often even with a small dosage causes anxiety and irritability.
Disclaimer: The effects listed below cite the Subjective Effect Index (SEI), an open research literature based on anecdotal user reports and the personal analyses of PsychonautWikicontributors. As a result, they should be viewed with a healthy degree of skepticism.
It is also worth noting that these effects will not necessarily occur in a predictable or reliable manner, although higher doses are more liable to induce the full spectrum of effects. Likewise, adverse effects become increasingly likely with higher doses and may include addiction, severe injury, or death ☠.
Physical effects
Stimulation - In terms of its effects on the physical energy levels of the user, yohimbine is usually considered to be mildly to moderately energetic and stimulating in a fashion that is considerably weaker in comparison to that of traditional recreational stimulants such as amphetamine or cocaine, but stronger than caffeine.
There are currently no anecdotal reports which describe the effects of this compound within our experience index. Additional experience reports can be found here:
Yohimbine is not known to cause harm in reasonable doses, and has an low toxicity relative to dose. Various studies have shown that in reasonable doses in a careful context, it presents few negative cognitive, psychiatric or toxic physical consequences, though some exist. Higher doses (200 – 5,000 mg) result in stronger side effects and can be toxic to the brain. Extremely high doses (above 5,000 mg) can be lethal.[7]
It is strongly recommended that one be familiar with harm reduction practices when using this drug.
Dependence and abuse potential
Yohimbine is not known to be not habit-forming and the desire to use it can actually decrease with use. It is most often self-regulating.
Tolerance to the effects of yohimbine are quickly built after repeated and frequent usage. After that, it takes about 7 days for the tolerance to be reduced to half and 14 days to be back at baseline (in the absence of further consumption). Yohimbine does not produce cross-tolerance with most other stimulants.
Dangerous interactions
Warning:Many psychoactive substances that are reasonably safe to use on their own can suddenly become dangerous and even life-threatening when combined with certain other substances. The following list provides some known dangerous interactions (although it is not guaranteed to include all of them).
Always conduct independent research (e.g. Google, DuckDuckGo, PubMed) to ensure that a combination of two or more substances is safe to consume. Some of the listed interactions have been sourced from TripSit.
]] & ]] - 25x compounds are highly stimulating and physically straining. Combinations with Yohimbine should be strictly avoided due to the risk of excessive stimulation and heart strain. This can result in increased blood pressure, vasoconstriction, panic attacks, thought loops, seizures, and heart failure in extreme cases.
]] - Combining alcohol with stimulants can be dangerous due to the risk of accidental over-intoxication. Stimulants mask alcohol's depressant effects, which is what most people use to assess their degree of intoxication. Once the stimulant wears off, the depressant effects will be left unopposed, which can result in blackouts and severe respiratory depression. If mixing, the user should strictly limit themselves to only drinking a certain amount of alcohol per hour.
]] - Combinations with DXM should be avoided due to its inhibiting effects on serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. There is an increased risk of panic attacks and hypertensive crisis, or serotonin syndrome with serotonin releasers (MDMA, methylone, mephedrone, etc.). Monitor blood pressure carefully and avoid strenuous physical activity.
]] - Any neurotoxic effects of MDMA are likely to be increased when other stimulants are present. There is also a risk of excessive blood pressure and heart strain (cardiotoxicity).
]] - Some reports suggest combinations with MXE may dangerously increase blood pressure and increase the risk of mania and psychosis.
]] - Both classes carry a risk of delusions, mania and psychosis, and these risk may be multiplied when combined.
]] - Tramadol is known to lower the seizure threshold[8] and combinations with stimulants may further increase this risk.
]] - This combination may increase the amount of neurotransmitters such as dopamine to dangerous or even fatal levels. Examples include syrian rue, banisteriopsis caapi, and some antidepressants.[9]
↑Agonist and antagonist actions of yohimbine as compared to fluparoxan at alpha(2)-adrenergic receptors (AR)s, serotonin (5-HT)(1A), 5-HT(1B), 5-HT(1D) and dopamine D(2) and D(3) receptors. Significance for the modulation of frontocortical monoaminergic transmission and depressive states. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10611634
↑Evidence for activation of both adrenergic and cholinergic nervous pathways by yohimbine, an alpha 2-adrenoceptor antagonist. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7557820
↑Differential effects of noradrenergic drugs on anxiety and arousal in healthy volunteers with high and low anxiety. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9004342
↑Talaie, H.; Panahandeh, R.; Fayaznouri, M. R.; Asadi, Z.; Abdollahi, M. (2009). "Dose-independent occurrence of seizure with tramadol". Journal of Medical Toxicology. 5 (2): 63–67. doi:10.1007/BF03161089. eISSN1937-6995. ISSN1556-9039. OCLC163567183.
. eISSN 1471-6771. ISSN 0007-0912. OCLC 01537271. PMID 16051647.