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{{SummarySheet}}
{{SummarySheet}}
{{talk:SubstanceBox/Grayanotoxin}}
{{talk:SubstanceBox/Grayanotoxin}}
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==History and culture==
==History and culture==
{{historyStub}}
{{historyStub}}
Grayanotoxins are an active constituent of a variety of plants with a history of medicinal and recreational use, including species of [[rhododendron]] and [[Monotropa uniflora|monotropa uniflora]] <ref>"Monotropa uniflora Indian Pipe". ''Plants for a Future''. Retrieved 2022-08-13.</ref>. Most commonly, grayanotoxins are consumed in the form of mad honey, which is contaminated with grayanotoxins from bees that pollinate rhododendron flowers <ref name=":2">Ullah S, Khan SU, Saleh TA, Fahad S. Mad honey: uses, intoxicating/poisoning effects, diagnosis, and treatment. RSC Adv. 2018 May 22;8(33):18635-18646. doi: 10.1039/c8ra01924j. PMID: 35541133; PMCID: PMC9080652</ref>. Mad honey is reportedly used as an aphrodisiac, painkiller, treatment for hypertension, and as a recreational drug, particularly in Nepal and the Black Sea region of Turkey <ref name=":2" />. Historically, mad honey has been added to [[Alcohol|alcoholic drinks]] to increase their potency <ref>"Grayanotoxins". ''Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook''. US FDA. 2012. Retrieved August 7, 2015.</ref>.
Grayanotoxins are an active constituent of a variety of plants with a history of medicinal and recreational use, including species of [[rhododendron]] and [[Monotropa uniflora|monotropa uniflora]] <ref>"Monotropa uniflora Indian Pipe". ''Plants for a Future''. Retrieved 2022-08-13.</ref>. Most commonly, grayanotoxins are consumed in the form of mad honey, which is contaminated with grayanotoxins from bees that pollinate rhododendron flowers <ref name=":2">Ullah S, Khan SU, Saleh TA, Fahad S. Mad honey: uses, intoxicating/poisoning effects, diagnosis, and treatment. RSC Adv. 2018 May 22;8(33):18635-18646. doi: 10.1039/c8ra01924j. PMID: 35541133; PMCID: PMC9080652</ref>. Mad honey is reportedly used as an aphrodisiac, painkiller, treatment for hypertension, and as a recreational drug, particularly in Nepal and the Black Sea region of Turkey <ref name=":2" />. Historically, mad honey has been added to [[Alcohol|alcoholic drinks]] to increase their potency <ref>"Grayanotoxins". ''Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook''. US FDA. 2012. Retrieved August 7, 2015.</ref>.  
 


The Gurung people of Nepal are especially known to harvest mad honey for its supposed hallucinogenic properties <ref>Shrestha TM, Nepal G, Shing YK, Shrestha L. Cardiovascular, psychiatric, and neurological phenomena seen in mad honey disease: A clinical case report. Clin Case Rep. 2018 Oct 22;6(12):2355-2357. doi: 10.1002/ccr3.1889. PMID: 30564328; PMCID: PMC6293183.</ref>.


==Chemistry==
==Chemistry==
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|{{effects/physical|
|{{effects/physical|
You may select physical effects to add below [[Subjective effect index#Physical effects|here]].


*'''[[Effect::[[Sedation]]]]'''  
*'''[[Effect::[[Sedation]]]]'''  
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*'''[[Effect::[[Decreased blood pressure]]]]'''  
*'''[[Effect::[[Decreased blood pressure]]]]'''  
*'''[[Effect::[[Pain relief]]]] <ref>Gunduz A, Eraydin I, Turkmen S, Kalkan OF, Turedi S, Eryigit U, Ayar A. Analgesic effects of mad honey (grayanotoxin) in mice models of acute pain and painful diabetic neuropathy. Hum Exp Toxicol. 2014 Feb;33(2):130-5. doi: 10.1177/0960327113482693. Epub 2013 Apr 12. PMID: 23584354.</ref>'''
*'''[[Effect::[[Pain relief]]]] <ref>Gunduz A, Eraydin I, Turkmen S, Kalkan OF, Turedi S, Eryigit U, Ayar A. Analgesic effects of mad honey (grayanotoxin) in mice models of acute pain and painful diabetic neuropathy. Hum Exp Toxicol. 2014 Feb;33(2):130-5. doi: 10.1177/0960327113482693. Epub 2013 Apr 12. PMID: 23584354.</ref>'''
*'''[[Effect::[[Nausea]]]]''' - This effect may occur as a result of both decreased blood pressure and the local irritant effect of grayanotoxins. In higher doses, grayanotoxins may cause vomiting <ref name=":0">Gunduz A, Turedi S, Russell RM, Ayaz FA. Clinical review of grayanotoxin/mad honey poisoning past and present. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2008 Jun;46(5):437-42. doi: 10.1080/15563650701666306. PMID: 18568799.</ref>.
*'''[[Effect::[[Nausea]]]]''' - This effect may occur as a result of both decreased blood pressure and the local irritant effect of grayanotoxins. In higher doses, grayanotoxins may cause vomiting <ref name=":0">Gunduz A, Turedi S, Russell RM, Ayaz FA. Clinical review of grayanotoxin/mad honey poisoning past and present. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2008 Jun;46(5):437-42. doi: 10.1080/15563650701666306. PMID: 18568799.</ref>.  
*'''[[Effect::[[Increased perspiration]]]]'''
*'''[[Effect::[[Headache]]]]''' <ref>Ullah S, Khan SU, Saleh TA, Fahad S. Mad honey: uses, intoxicating/poisoning effects, diagnosis, and treatment. RSC Adv. 2018 May 22;8(33):18635-18646. doi: 10.1039/c8ra01924j. PMID: 35541133; PMCID: PMC9080652.</ref> 
*'''[[Effect::[[Increased salivation]]]]'''  
*'''[[Effect::[[Increased salivation]]]]'''  
*'''[[Effect::[[Diarrhea]]]]''' <ref name=":0">Gunduz A, Turedi S, Russell RM, Ayaz FA. Clinical review of grayanotoxin/mad honey poisoning past and present. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2008 Jun;46(5):437-42. doi: 10.1080/15563650701666306. PMID: 18568799.</ref> - Grayanotoxin-containing plants have been historically used as laxatives.
*'''[[Effect::[[Diarrhea]]]]''' <ref name=":0">Gunduz A, Turedi S, Russell RM, Ayaz FA. Clinical review of grayanotoxin/mad honey poisoning past and present. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2008 Jun;46(5):437-42. doi: 10.1080/15563650701666306. PMID: 18568799.</ref> - Grayanotoxin-containing plants have been historically used as laxatives.
*'''[[Effect::[[Motor control loss]]]]''' <ref>Ohgaki T, Uchida S, Meguri H, Ogita K, Yoneda Y. Preventive action of quisqualic acid against grayanotoxin-induced suppression of locomotor activity in mice. Neuropharmacology. 1988 Oct;27(10):1045-53. doi: 10.1016/0028-3908(88)90066-4. PMID: 3070432.</ref>
*'''[[Effect::[[Motor control loss]]]]''' <ref>Ohgaki T, Uchida S, Meguri H, Ogita K, Yoneda Y. Preventive action of quisqualic acid against grayanotoxin-induced suppression of locomotor activity in mice. Neuropharmacology. 1988 Oct;27(10):1045-53. doi: 10.1016/0028-3908(88)90066-4. PMID: 3070432.</ref>
*'''[[Effect::[[Temperature regulation suppression]]]]''' - This may manifest as hypothermia.
*'''[[Effect::[[Temperature regulation suppression]]]]''' - This may manifest as [[Temperature regulation suppression|hypothermia]].
*'''[[Effect::[[Dizziness]]]]''' - This effect may occur along with vertigo <ref name=":0">Gunduz A, Turedi S, Russell RM, Ayaz FA. Clinical review of grayanotoxin/mad honey poisoning past and present. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2008 Jun;46(5):437-42. doi: 10.1080/15563650701666306. PMID: 18568799.</ref>.
*'''[[Effect::[[Dizziness]]]]''' - This effect may occur along with vertigo <ref name=":0">Gunduz A, Turedi S, Russell RM, Ayaz FA. Clinical review of grayanotoxin/mad honey poisoning past and present. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2008 Jun;46(5):437-42. doi: 10.1080/15563650701666306. PMID: 18568799.</ref>.
*'''[[Effect::[[Appetite suppression]]]]''' <ref>Jansen SA, Kleerekooper I, Hofman ZL, Kappen IF, Stary-Weinzinger A, van der Heyden MA. Grayanotoxin poisoning: 'mad honey disease' and beyond. Cardiovasc Toxicol. 2012 Sep;12(3):208-15. doi: 10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2. PMID: 22528814; PMCID: PMC3404272.</ref>
*'''[[Effect::[[Appetite suppression]]]]''' <ref>Jansen SA, Kleerekooper I, Hofman ZL, Kappen IF, Stary-Weinzinger A, van der Heyden MA. Grayanotoxin poisoning: 'mad honey disease' and beyond. Cardiovasc Toxicol. 2012 Sep;12(3):208-15. doi: 10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2. PMID: 22528814; PMCID: PMC3404272.</ref>
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}}
}}
{{effects/visual|
{{effects/visual|
If applicable, a brief paragraph summary of the substance's visual effects may be included here.


You may select visual effects to add below [[Subjective effect index#Visual effects|here]].
====Suppressions====
*'''[[Effect::[[Visual acuity suppression]]]]'''
*'''[[Effect::[[Double vision]]]]''' <ref>Jansen SA, Kleerekooper I, Hofman ZL, Kappen IF, Stary-Weinzinger A, van der Heyden MA. Grayanotoxin poisoning: 'mad honey disease' and beyond. Cardiovasc Toxicol. 2012 Sep;12(3):208-15. doi: 10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2. PMID: 22528814; PMCID: PMC3404272.</ref> 
*'''[[Effect::[[Color depression]]]]''' <ref>Setareh-Shenas S, Kaplin S, Bania TC, Kornberg R. A Rare Case of Mad Honey Disease: A Reversible Cause of Complete Heart Block. JACC Case Rep. 2019 Nov 13;1(4):579-582. doi: 10.1016/j.jaccas.2019.09.015. PMID: 34316883; PMCID: PMC8288791.</ref>


====Enhancements====
*'''[[Effect::Visual acuity effect1]]'''


====Distortions====
====Distortions====
*'''[[Effect::Visual distortion effect1]]'''
*'''[[Effect::[[Drifting]]]]''' - This effect is qualitatively similar to that of other [[Cholinergics|cholinergic substances]], and is likely a result of the effects of grayanotoxins on sodium channels.
*'''[[Effect::[[Visual haze]]]]''' <ref>Roy, Saurav & Biswas, Soumya & Ghosh, Saikat & Roy, Pragyan. (2019). The Himalayan hallucinogenic honey and its future prospects and proposed uses. 10.13140/RG.2.2.29254.63041.</ref>
*'''[[Effect::[[Brightness alteration]]]]''' <ref>Setareh-Shenas S, Kaplin S, Bania TC, Kornberg R. A Rare Case of Mad Honey Disease: A Reversible Cause of Complete Heart Block. JACC Case Rep. 2019 Nov 13;1(4):579-582. doi: 10.1016/j.jaccas.2019.09.015. PMID: 34316883; PMCID: PMC8288791.</ref> - Grayanotoxin may make colors appear darker.
 


====[[Effect::Geometry]]====
If applicable, a brief paragraph summary describing the visual geometry produced by the substance may be included here.
====Hallucinatory states====
====Hallucinatory states====
If applicable, a brief summary of the substance's visual effects profile may be written here.


*'''[[Effect::Hallucinatory states1]]'''
*'''[[Effect::[[External hallucination]]]]''' - [[Deliriant]]-like hallucinations have been reported after high-dose ingestion of grayanotoxins, this is rarely reported and is unlikely to occur at common doses. <ref>Shrestha TM, Nepal G, Shing YK, Shrestha L. Cardiovascular, psychiatric, and neurological phenomena seen in mad honey disease: A clinical case report. Clin Case Rep. 2018 Oct 22;6(12):2355-2357. doi: 10.1002/ccr3.1889. PMID: 30564328; PMCID: PMC6293183.</ref>
*'''[[Effect::[[Internal hallucination]]]]'''  


}}
}}


|{{effects/cognitive|
|{{effects/cognitive|
If applicable, a brief paragraph summary of the substance's cognitive effects may be included here.


You may select from a list of cognitive effects to add below [[Subjective effect index#Cognitive effects|here]].
*'''[[Effect::[[Cognitive fatigue]]]]''' <ref>Jansen SA, Kleerekooper I, Hofman ZL, Kappen IF, Stary-Weinzinger A, van der Heyden MA. Grayanotoxin poisoning: 'mad honey disease' and beyond. Cardiovasc Toxicol. 2012 Sep;12(3):208-15. doi: 10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2. PMID: 22528814; PMCID: PMC3404272.</ref> 
 
*'''[[Effect::[[Confusion]]]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Cognitive effect1]]'''  
*'''[[Effect::[[Irritability]]]]''' <ref>Ullah S, Khan SU, Saleh TA, Fahad S. Mad honey: uses, intoxicating/poisoning effects, diagnosis, and treatment. RSC Adv. 2018 May 22;8(33):18635-18646. doi: 10.1039/c8ra01924j. PMID: 35541133; PMCID: PMC9080652.</ref>
*'''[[Effect::Cognitive effect2]]'''  
*'''[[Effect::[[Sleepiness]]]]''' - At sufficient doses, grayanotoxins may cause [[sedation]] and even a sudden loss of consciousness <ref>Jansen SA, Kleerekooper I, Hofman ZL, Kappen IF, Stary-Weinzinger A, van der Heyden MA. Grayanotoxin poisoning: 'mad honey disease' and beyond. Cardiovasc Toxicol. 2012 Sep;12(3):208-15. doi: 10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2. PMID: 22528814; PMCID: PMC3404272.</ref>.
*'''[[Effect::Cognitive effect3]]'''  
*'''[[Effect::[[Cognitive euphoria]]]]''' - This effect manifests as a sense of relaxation <ref>Shrestha TM, Nepal G, Shing YK, Shrestha L. Cardiovascular, psychiatric, and neurological phenomena seen in mad honey disease: A clinical case report. Clin Case Rep. 2018 Oct 22;6(12):2355-2357. doi: 10.1002/ccr3.1889. PMID: 30564328; PMCID: PMC6293183.</ref>
*'''[[Effect::[[Cognitive dysphoria]]]]''' <ref>Ullah S, Khan SU, Saleh TA, Fahad S. Mad honey: uses, intoxicating/poisoning effects, diagnosis, and treatment. RSC Adv. 2018 May 22;8(33):18635-18646. doi: 10.1039/c8ra01924j. PMID: 35541133; PMCID: PMC9080652.</ref> 
*'''[[Effect::[[Anxiety suppression]]]]''' - Grayanotoxin-containing plants, such as monotropa uniflora, have been historically used for their anxiolytic effects <ref>Wickes Felter, Harvey; Uri Lloyd, John (1898). King's American dispensatory (19th 3rd rev ed.). Ohio Valley Co. p. 1277.</ref>.


}}
}}
{{effects/auditory|
{{effects/auditory|
If applicable, a brief paragraph summary of the substance's auditory effects may be included here.


You may select from a list of auditory effects to add below [[Subjective effect index#Auditory effects|here]].
*'''[[Effect::[[Auditory acuity suppression]]]]''' <ref>Demircan A, Keles A, Bildik F, Aygelcel G, Dogan NO, Gomez HF. Mad honey sex: Therapeutic misadventures from an ancient biological weapon. An Emerg Med 2009; 54: 824-9</ref>


*'''[[Effect::Auditory effect1]]'''
*'''[[Effect::Auditory effect2]]'''


}}
}}
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{{#ask: [[Category:SUBSTANCE]][[Category:Experience]]|format=ul|Columns=1}}
{{#ask: [[Category:SUBSTANCE]][[Category:Experience]]|format=ul|Columns=1}}
Additional experience reports can be found here:
Additional experience reports can be found here:
* [https://www.erowid.org/experiences/subs/exp_SUBSTANCE.shtml Erowid Experience Vaults: SUBSTANCE] <!-- Check the link to see if it exists -->
* [https://erowid.org/experiences/subs/exp_Honey_Mad_Nepalese_Rhododendron_Flower.shtml Erowid Experience Vaults: Mad Honey]
* [https://erowid.org/experiences/subs/exp_Monotropa_uniflora.shtml Erowid Experience Vaults: Monotropa uniflora]


==Toxicity and harm potential==
==Toxicity and harm potential==
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===Lethal dosage===
===Lethal dosage===
===Tolerance and addiction potential===
===Tolerance and addiction potential===
===Dangerous interactions===
===Dangerous interactions===
{{DangerousInteractions}}
{{DangerousInteractions}}
{{DangerousInteractions/Intro}}
{{DangerousInteractions/Intro}}
*'''[[UnsafeInteraction::Cholinergics]]''' - Because grayanotoxins potentiate the effects of [[acetylcholine]], cholinergic substances such as [[nicotine]], [[caffeine]], and [[galantamine]] may carry an increased risk of [[cholinergic crisis]].
*'''[[UnsafeInteraction::Depressants]]''' - Combining grayanotoxins with other [[depressants]] increase the risk of a sudden loss of consciousness.
*'''[[DangerousInteraction::Opioids]]'''  - Grayanotoxins and opioids potentiate the [[sedation]], [[hypotension]], and [[decreased heart rate]] caused by each other, increasing the risk of sudden loss of consciousness or [[respiratory depression]].


==Legal status==
==Legal status==

Latest revision as of 19:35, 16 March 2025

Summary sheet: Grayanotoxin
Template:Grayanotoxin
Chemical Nomenclature
Common names Mad Honey
Class Membership
Psychoactive class Depressant
Chemical class Diterpene
Routes of Administration

WARNING: Always start with lower doses due to differences between individual body weight, tolerance, metabolism, and personal sensitivity. See responsible use section.



⇣ Oral
Dosage
Duration
Total x"x" is not a number. - y"y" is not a number. hours
Onset x"x" is not a number. - y"y" is not a number. minutes
Come up x"x" is not a number. - y"y" is not a number. minutes
Peak x"x" is not a number. - y"y" is not a number. hours
Offset x"x" is not a number. - y"y" is not a number. hours
After effects x"x" is not a number. - y"y" is not a number. hours









DISCLAIMER: PW's dosage information is gathered from users and resources for educational purposes only. It is not a recommendation and should be verified with other sources for accuracy.

Interactions
<ul><li>The symbol "[[" was used in a place where it is not useful.</li> <!--br--><li>The part "]]" of the query was not understood.Results might not be as expected.</li></ul>
<ul><li>The symbol "[[" was used in a place where it is not useful.</li> <!--br--><li>The part "]]" of the query was not understood.Results might not be as expected.</li></ul>
<ul><li>The symbol "[[" was used in a place where it is not useful.</li> <!--br--><li>The part "]]" of the query was not understood.Results might not be as expected.</li></ul>


History and culture

This History and culture section is a stub.

As a result, it may contain incomplete or wrong information. You can help by expanding it.

Grayanotoxins are an active constituent of a variety of plants with a history of medicinal and recreational use, including species of rhododendron and monotropa uniflora [1]. Most commonly, grayanotoxins are consumed in the form of mad honey, which is contaminated with grayanotoxins from bees that pollinate rhododendron flowers [2]. Mad honey is reportedly used as an aphrodisiac, painkiller, treatment for hypertension, and as a recreational drug, particularly in Nepal and the Black Sea region of Turkey [2]. Historically, mad honey has been added to alcoholic drinks to increase their potency [3].

The Gurung people of Nepal are especially known to harvest mad honey for its supposed hallucinogenic properties [4].

Chemistry

This chemistry section is incomplete.

You can help by adding to it.

Pharmacology

This pharmacology section is incomplete.

You can help by adding to it.

Grayanotoxins are a group of toxic diterpenes found in the ericacaeae family of plants [5]. More than 25 grayanotoxin isoforms have been isolated from rhododendron, though grayanotoxin I and grayanotoxin III are considered to be the most responsible for the toxic pharmacological effects of grayanotoxin-containing plants.[6] Grayanotoxin I, as well as grayanotoxin III, act as agonists of voltage-gated sodium channels.[7][8] Through this mechanism, grayanotoxins increase the release of neurotransmitters in the central nervous system such as GABA [8], glutamate [8], and acetylcholine [9].

Additionally, grayanotoxin III may act as an antagonist of central glutamate receptors, further contributing to CNS depressant effects [10]. Reports of grayanotoxin intoxication include symptoms of the cholinergic toxidrome such as decreased heart rate, hypotension, and an altered mental status [5].

Subjective effects

 This subjective effects section is a stub.

As such, it is still in progress and may contain incomplete or wrong information.

You can help by expanding or correcting it.

Disclaimer: The effects listed below cite the Subjective Effect Index (SEI), an open research literature based on anecdotal user reports and the personal analyses of PsychonautWiki contributors. As a result, they should be viewed with a healthy degree of skepticism.

It is also worth noting that these effects will not necessarily occur in a predictable or reliable manner, although higher doses are more liable to induce the full spectrum of effects. Likewise, adverse effects become increasingly likely with higher doses and may include addiction, severe injury, or death ☠.

Physical effects

Visual effects

Cognitive effects

Auditory effects

Experience reports

There are currently 0 experience reports which describe the effects of this substance in our experience index.

Additional experience reports can be found here:

Toxicity and harm potential

This toxicity and harm potential section is a stub.

As a result, it may contain incomplete or even dangerously wrong information! You can help by expanding upon or correcting it.
Note: Always conduct independent research and use harm reduction practices if using this substance.

It is strongly recommended that one use harm reduction practices when using this substance.

Lethal dosage

Tolerance and addiction potential

Dangerous interactions

This dangerous interactions section is a stub.

As such, it may contain incomplete or invalid information. You can help by expanding upon or correcting it.

Warning: Many psychoactive substances that are reasonably safe to use on their own can suddenly become dangerous and even life-threatening when combined with certain other substances. The following list provides some known dangerous interactions (although it is not guaranteed to include all of them).

Always conduct independent research (e.g. Google, DuckDuckGo, PubMed) to ensure that a combination of two or more substances is safe to consume. Some of the listed interactions have been sourced from TripSit.

This legality section is a stub.

As such, it may contain incomplete or wrong information. You can help by expanding it.

See also

(List along order below)

Literature

  • APA formatted reference

Please see the citation formatting guide if you need assistance properly formatting citations.

References

  1. ↑ "Monotropa uniflora Indian Pipe". Plants for a Future. Retrieved 2022-08-13.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Ullah S, Khan SU, Saleh TA, Fahad S. Mad honey: uses, intoxicating/poisoning effects, diagnosis, and treatment. RSC Adv. 2018 May 22;8(33):18635-18646. doi: 10.1039/c8ra01924j. PMID: 35541133; PMCID: PMC9080652
  3. ↑ "Grayanotoxins". Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook. US FDA. 2012. Retrieved August 7, 2015.
  4. ↑ Shrestha TM, Nepal G, Shing YK, Shrestha L. Cardiovascular, psychiatric, and neurological phenomena seen in mad honey disease: A clinical case report. Clin Case Rep. 2018 Oct 22;6(12):2355-2357. doi: 10.1002/ccr3.1889. PMID: 30564328; PMCID: PMC6293183.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Gunduz A, Turedi S, Russell RM, Ayaz FA. Clinical review of grayanotoxin/mad honey poisoning past and present. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2008 Jun;46(5):437-42. doi: 10.1080/15563650701666306. PMID: 18568799.
  6. ↑ Jansen SA, Kleerekooper I, Hofman ZL, Kappen IF, Stary-Weinzinger A, van der Heyden MA. Grayanotoxin poisoning: 'mad honey disease' and beyond. Cardiovasc Toxicol. 2012 Sep;12(3):208-15. doi: 10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2. PMID: 22528814; PMCID: PMC3404272.
  7. ↑ Yuki T, Yamaoka K, Yakehiro M, Seyama I. State-dependent action of grayanotoxin I on Na(+) channels in frog ventricular myocytes. J Physiol. 2001 Aug 1;534(Pt 3):777-90. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.00777.x. PMID: 11483708; PMCID: PMC2278746.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Kim SE, Shin MC, Akaike N, Kim CJ. Presynaptic effects of grayanotoxin III on excitatory and inhibitory nerve terminals in rat ventromedial hypothalamic neurons. Neurotoxicology. 2010 Mar;31(2):230-8. doi: 10.1016/j.neuro.2009.12.006. Epub 2009 Dec 28. PMID: 20038438.
  9. ↑ Pischon H, Petrick A, Müller M, Köster N, Pietsch J, Mundhenk L. Grayanotoxin I Intoxication in Pet Pigs. Veterinary Pathology. 2018;55(6):896-899. doi:10.1177/0300985818789482
  10. ↑ Ohgaki T, Uchida S, Meguri H, Ogita K, Yoneda Y. Preventive action of quisqualic acid against grayanotoxin-induced suppression of locomotor activity in mice. Neuropharmacology. 1988 Oct;27(10):1045-53. doi: 10.1016/0028-3908(88)90066-4. PMID: 3070432.
  11. ↑ Ohgaki T, Meguri H, Ogita K, Yoneda Y. Tetrodotoxin-insensitive central depression by grayanotoxin-III in mice. Brain Res. 1987 Nov 10;425(2):364-8. doi: 10.1016/0006-8993(87)90521-x. PMID: 2448007.
  12. ↑ Shrestha TM, Nepal G, Shing YK, Shrestha L. Cardiovascular, psychiatric, and neurological phenomena seen in mad honey disease: A clinical case report. Clin Case Rep. 2018 Oct 22;6(12):2355- 2357. doi: 10.1002/ccr3.1889. PMID: 30564328; PMCID: PMC6293183.
  13. ↑ Gunduz A, Eraydin I, Turkmen S, Kalkan OF, Turedi S, Eryigit U, Ayar A. Analgesic effects of mad honey (grayanotoxin) in mice models of acute pain and painful diabetic neuropathy. Hum Exp Toxicol. 2014 Feb;33(2):130-5. doi: 10.1177/0960327113482693. Epub 2013 Apr 12. PMID: 23584354.
  14. ↑ Ullah S, Khan SU, Saleh TA, Fahad S. Mad honey: uses, intoxicating/poisoning effects, diagnosis, and treatment. RSC Adv. 2018 May 22;8(33):18635-18646. doi: 10.1039/c8ra01924j. PMID: 35541133; PMCID: PMC9080652.
  15. ↑ Ohgaki T, Uchida S, Meguri H, Ogita K, Yoneda Y. Preventive action of quisqualic acid against grayanotoxin-induced suppression of locomotor activity in mice. Neuropharmacology. 1988 Oct;27(10):1045-53. doi: 10.1016/0028-3908(88)90066-4. PMID: 3070432.
  16. ↑ Jansen SA, Kleerekooper I, Hofman ZL, Kappen IF, Stary-Weinzinger A, van der Heyden MA. Grayanotoxin poisoning: 'mad honey disease' and beyond. Cardiovasc Toxicol. 2012 Sep;12(3):208-15. doi: 10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2. PMID: 22528814; PMCID: PMC3404272.
  17. ↑ Jansen SA, Kleerekooper I, Hofman ZL, Kappen IF, Stary-Weinzinger A, van der Heyden MA. Grayanotoxin poisoning: 'mad honey disease' and beyond. Cardiovasc Toxicol. 2012 Sep;12(3):208-15. doi: 10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2. PMID: 22528814; PMCID: PMC3404272.
  18. ↑ Setareh-Shenas S, Kaplin S, Bania TC, Kornberg R. A Rare Case of Mad Honey Disease: A Reversible Cause of Complete Heart Block. JACC Case Rep. 2019 Nov 13;1(4):579-582. doi: 10.1016/j.jaccas.2019.09.015. PMID: 34316883; PMCID: PMC8288791.
  19. ↑ Roy, Saurav & Biswas, Soumya & Ghosh, Saikat & Roy, Pragyan. (2019). The Himalayan hallucinogenic honey and its future prospects and proposed uses. 10.13140/RG.2.2.29254.63041.
  20. ↑ Setareh-Shenas S, Kaplin S, Bania TC, Kornberg R. A Rare Case of Mad Honey Disease: A Reversible Cause of Complete Heart Block. JACC Case Rep. 2019 Nov 13;1(4):579-582. doi: 10.1016/j.jaccas.2019.09.015. PMID: 34316883; PMCID: PMC8288791.
  21. ↑ Shrestha TM, Nepal G, Shing YK, Shrestha L. Cardiovascular, psychiatric, and neurological phenomena seen in mad honey disease: A clinical case report. Clin Case Rep. 2018 Oct 22;6(12):2355-2357. doi: 10.1002/ccr3.1889. PMID: 30564328; PMCID: PMC6293183.
  22. ↑ Jansen SA, Kleerekooper I, Hofman ZL, Kappen IF, Stary-Weinzinger A, van der Heyden MA. Grayanotoxin poisoning: 'mad honey disease' and beyond. Cardiovasc Toxicol. 2012 Sep;12(3):208-15. doi: 10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2. PMID: 22528814; PMCID: PMC3404272.
  23. ↑ Ullah S, Khan SU, Saleh TA, Fahad S. Mad honey: uses, intoxicating/poisoning effects, diagnosis, and treatment. RSC Adv. 2018 May 22;8(33):18635-18646. doi: 10.1039/c8ra01924j. PMID: 35541133; PMCID: PMC9080652.
  24. ↑ Jansen SA, Kleerekooper I, Hofman ZL, Kappen IF, Stary-Weinzinger A, van der Heyden MA. Grayanotoxin poisoning: 'mad honey disease' and beyond. Cardiovasc Toxicol. 2012 Sep;12(3):208-15. doi: 10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2. PMID: 22528814; PMCID: PMC3404272.
  25. ↑ Shrestha TM, Nepal G, Shing YK, Shrestha L. Cardiovascular, psychiatric, and neurological phenomena seen in mad honey disease: A clinical case report. Clin Case Rep. 2018 Oct 22;6(12):2355-2357. doi: 10.1002/ccr3.1889. PMID: 30564328; PMCID: PMC6293183.
  26. ↑ Ullah S, Khan SU, Saleh TA, Fahad S. Mad honey: uses, intoxicating/poisoning effects, diagnosis, and treatment. RSC Adv. 2018 May 22;8(33):18635-18646. doi: 10.1039/c8ra01924j. PMID: 35541133; PMCID: PMC9080652.
  27. ↑ Wickes Felter, Harvey; Uri Lloyd, John (1898). King's American dispensatory (19th 3rd rev ed.). Ohio Valley Co. p. 1277.
  28. ↑ Demircan A, Keles A, Bildik F, Aygelcel G, Dogan NO, Gomez HF. Mad honey sex: Therapeutic misadventures from an ancient biological weapon. An Emerg Med 2009; 54: 824-9
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